653,000, and the value of the year's output was $98,208,000; of this, $20,513,000 was the value added by manufacture. The city has adopted the commission form of government. The residential part is very attractive, containing mansions of many New York business men, and the fine Hudson County Boulevard terminates at Bayonne. The city has an important public library, recreation grounds and bathing establishments. Pop. 65,000.

BAYONNE, Treaty of, a treaty of peace agreed to 4 May 1808, and signed on the next day, between Napoleon and Charles IV, King of Spain. The latter resigned his kingdom, and Napoleon engaged to maintain its integrity, and to preserve the Roman Catholic religion. His son, Ferdinand VII, confirmed the cession 10 May.

BAYONNE CONFERENCE, a conference held at Bayonne, June 1565, between Charles IX of France, the Queen mother, Catherine de Medici, Elizabeth, Queen of Spain, and the Duke of Alva, envoy of Philip II, to arrange plans for the repression of the Hugue

nots.

BAYONNE DECREE. On 17 April 1808, Napoleon directed the capture and sale of all vessels entering the ports of Spain, France, Italy and the Hanse towns, under the American flag, and by the provisions of this declaration, known as the Bayonne Decree, France is supposed to have confiscated more than 300 American vessels. The decree was issued ostensibly with the view of helping the United States to enforce the embargo of 1807 and on the presumption that all such vessels must be sailing under false colors and thus indirectly benefiting the English cause. See CONTINENTAL SYSTEM,

BAYOU, bi'oo, probably a corruption of the French word boyau, a "gut" or "channel." Its strict signification is a stream which is not fed by springs, but flows from some other stream or from a lake; but it is not infrequently used in America as synonymous with "creek. The term is very little employed except in the States of Louisiana, Texas and Arkansas.

BAYOU STATE, the name often given to the State of Mississippi.

BAYREUTH, bi-roit, or BAIREUTH, Bavaria, on the Red Main, 41 miles northeast of Nuremberg, capital city of the government district of Upper Franconia. The principal edifices are the old palace now occupied by public offices, the new palace, with garden and park open to the public; the opera house, a gymnasium, and the national theatre, constructed after the design of the composer Wagner. Among the interesting private houses are the Villa Wahnfried, the former residence of Richard Wagner, who is buried in its grounds, and the house of Jean Paul Richter. In the Central Cemetery are the graves of Jean Paul Richter and the composer Franz Liszt. Baireuth has numerous educational and charitable institutions. There are manufactures of cotton and woolen goods, sewing machines, leather, earthenware and agricultural and musical instruments. There are also breweries, distilleries and brick-kilns. This town is popularly known as the mecca of the Wagnerites. In 1872, partly from funds collected from patrons and partly

by the organization of the so-called Wagner societies, there was begun the erection of a theatre for the production of Wagner's works. It was opened in 1876 with a grand performance of his Ring of the Nibelungen,' and since then music lovers have been attracted to Baireuth from all over the world. The theatre occupies a site on a hill overlooking the town and is reached by a broad avenue of shade trees. In connection with the theatre is a school for the training of voices to participate in the Wagner festivals. Baireuth fell to the Burgrave of Nuremberg in 1248, and after many vicissitudes was ceded to Bavaria in 1810. Pop. (1910) 34,547.

BAYRHOFFER, bir'hōf-fer, Karl Theodor, German Hegelian philosopher and radical politician: b. Marburg 1812; d. Jordan, Wis., 3 Feb. 1888. He was professor of philosophy at Marburg, taking the chair in 1845, but in 1846 his radical views caused his expulsion. During the brief rule of liberalism in Hesse he was chosen president of the chamber; but, in 1853, was forced to flee to the United States. Among other works he wrote 'On Catholicism in Germany; Idea and History of Philosophy'; 'Fundamental Problems of Metaphysics,'

etc.

BAZA, bä'tha, Spain (ancient BASTI), a city in the province of and 53 miles eastnortheast from Granada, in a valley north of the Sierra Baza. The environs yield wine and hemp, grain, fruit, oil; sheep, cattle and mules are reared; and there are some manufactures, chiefly of leather pottery, sombreros, and flour and oil mills. Baza is famed in early Spanish history, more especially in that of Granada. In 1489 it was taken from the Moors by the Spaniards, after a siege of nearly seven months. In 1810 the French, under Marshal Soult, here defeated the Spaniards under Generals Blake and Freire. Pop. 15,964.

BAZAINE, ba-zan, Achille François, French military officer: b. Versailles, 13 Feb. 1811; d. 23 Sept. 1888. He entered the army in 1831, served in Algeria, in Spain against the Carlists and in the Crimean War. He joined the Mexican expedition under General Forey, was present at the siege of Puebla, and shortly afterward was the first to enter the City of Mexico. In 1863 he obtained the chief command, was made a marshal of France in 1864, and remained in Mexico with the Emperor Maximilian. When Napoleon III abandoned the Emperor, Bazaine tried vainly to persuade him to abdicate the throne voluntarily. In 1870, at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, he commanded the 3d army corps, and capitulated at Metz, after a seven weeks' siege, with an army of 170,000 men. For this act he was tried by court-martial in 1871, found guilty of treason and condemned to death. This sentence was commuted to 20 years' seclusion in the Isle of Saint Marguerite, off the south coast of France, from which he escaped and retired to Spain, where an attempt was made to assassinate him. His widow, who had clung faithfully to him in his adversity and had plotted successfully for his escape, died in the City of Mexico, 8 Jan. 1900. She was a woman of aristocratic birth and much beauty. See La Brugère, 'L'affaire Bazaine) (1874); L'Hérisson, La légende de Metz' (1888).

BAZALGETTE

BAZALGETTE, băz-ǎl-jet', SIR Joseph William, English civil engineer: b. Enfield, England, 1819; d. London, 1 March 1891. As chief engineer of the London board of works he built many miles of sewers and embankments, three of the Thames bridges and the well-known Thames embankments. He was an expert authority on questions of municipal engineering.

BAZAN, ba-zän, Don César de. See DoN CÉSAR DE BAZAN.

BAZAN, ba-thän, Emilia Pardo. See PARDO BAZAN, EMILIA.

BAZANCOURT,

ba-zän-koor, .César (BARON DE), French military historian: b. Paris 1810; d. there, 25 Jan. 1865. He was official historiographer to Napoleon III, whom he accompanied in several campaigns. He published 'L'expédition de Crimée jusqu'à la prise de Sebastopol (1856); La campagne d'Italie de 1859'; 'Les expéditions de Chine et Cochinchine' (1861-62); 'Histoire de Sicile sous la domination des Normands' (1846); and the novels Georges la Montagnard' (1851); 'Noblesse oblige' (1851); 'La Princesse Pallianci' (1852).

BAZANCOURT, Jean Baptiste Marin Antoine Lecat de, French general: b. Val-deMolle (Oise), 19 March 1767; d. 17 Jan. 1830. He took an active part in the Italian campaigns; distinguished himself and was wounded at the siege of Saint Jean d'Acre; fought in the battle of Austerlitz, and was a member of the court-martial which, on 21 March 1804, pronounced the sentence of death upon the Duc d'Enghien. In 1806 he was appointed commander of the Legion of Honor, and in 1808 promoted to the rank of brigadier-general, while in the same year he was created baron of the empire, and went as commander to Hamburg with a mission connected with the continental blockade. He withdrew from service in 1815.

the

BAZAR, or BAZAAR, a market-place in the East, the word being Arabic in origin. Some bazars are open, some covered over. As the Orientals live almost entirely out of doors, the bazars of populous cities, besides their mercantile importance, are of consequence places of social intercourse. In the Oriental tales,for instance, in the Arabian Nights,' bazars occupy a very conspicuous place. The word bazar has also been imported into Europe, where it is used in much the same sense as in the East. Among English-speaking people it is frequently applied to a temporary sale of fancy goods contributed gratuitously and sold to raise a special fund.

BAZARD, ba-zär, Amand, French socialist: b. Paris 1791; d. 29 July 1832. After the Restoration he helped to found the Revolutionary Society of the "Amis de la Vérité," and in 1820 an association of French Carbonari. In 1825, impressed with the necessity of a total reconstruction of society, he attached himself to the school of Saint-Simon, and became one of the editors of a journal termed Le Producteur. In 1828 he delivered at Paris a series of lectures, the substance of which was published in the 'Exposition de la doctrine de Saint-Simon' (1828-30), of which the first part was by Bazard, the second being chiefly the

VOL. 324

composition of Enfantin. He and Enfantin became the acknowledged leaders of the school. After the July Revolution (1830), a larger scope was afforded to the Saint-Simonians. The masses were attracted by the doctrine that all social institutions ought to have for their end the moral, intellectual and physical amelioration of the poor. In a short time, Bazard and his friends had created a new society, living in the midst of the old, with peculiar laws, manners and doctrines. But Bazard's connection with it was of short duration. He differed from Enfantin on the doctrine of the emancipation of women, and in 1831 seceded in disgust. His efforts to found a school of his own proved unsuccessful, and, during a heated discussion with his former friend, Enfantin, he was struck with apoplexy, from the effects of which he died.

BAZAS, town in the department of Gironde, France, on the Beuve, about 33 miles southeast of Bordeaux, with which it is connected by rail. It overlooks the river from a rocky eminence and was once a well fortified town, the remains of its walls, built in the 13th century, being still visible. In the times of the Romans it was known as Castrum Vasatum. Among its attractions are a cathedral of Gothic architecture and an old monastery now used as a college. Until 1792 it was the seat of a bishopric. Leather and woolen goods and hats are manufactured here. Pop. (1911) 4,704.

BAZIGARS, bä-zę-gärz', a tribe of nomadic Indians dispersed throughout the whole of Hindustan. They are divided into seven castes; their chief occupation is that of jugglers, acrobats and tumblers, in which both males and females are equally skilful. They present many features analogous to the gypsies of Europe.

BAZIN, René François, French novelist: b. Angers, 26 Dec. 1853. Graduating from a law college in Paris, he became, in 1878, professor of law at the university in his native city. In 1903 he was elected a member of the French Academy. Reading the works of Capt. Mayne Reid influenced him to become a writer. He ranks as one of the foremost of present-day French novelists, but he has also written many books of travel and observation, one of which, 'The Italians of To-day' (1904), has been widely read among Americans. His novels are (Stephanette (1884); 'Les Noellet' (1890); 'Madame Corentin' (1893); Humble amour' (1894); De toute son âme' (1897); 'La terre qui meurt (1899); Les Oberlé (1901); Donatienne (1903); L'âme alsacienne) (1903); 'L'isolée (1905); 'Le blé qui lève) (1907); 'Le mariage de Mademoiselle Gimel (1908; English translation 1913). Among his works of non-fiction are 'A l'aventure' (1891); (Sicile (1892); Terre d'Espagne' (1896); "Croquis de France et d'Orient' (1901); NordSud Amérique, Angleterre, Corse, Spitzberg' (1913).

BAZOCHE, ba-zō'sch, or BASOCHE (corruption of Basilica), a brotherhood formed by the clerks of the Parliament of Paris at the time it ceased to be the Grand Council of the French king. The government of the order was vested in a chief known as "le roi de la Bizoche," who had his retinue after the manner of real kings and maintained a mock court. The organization was divided into chapters, at

a

the head of each being a captain, who, together with the members of his division, wore special uniform to distinguish them from the members of the other chapters. Such chapters were also found in other parts of France where local parliaments were maintained. The order was in existence as early as 1303, for in that year King Philip conferred on it the privilege of holding an annual festival at which were presented dramatic performances in which current events were freely satirized. In 1500 the order was granted the permission to hold these performances in the salon of the Royal Palace. The most popular of these farces was a mock trial called "Pathelin," which was first presented in 1480. These crude performances had a powerful influence in the latter development of the French stage, the comedies of Molière being founded on them. On the outbreak of the first agitations that finally had their climax in the great French Revolution, the guild took an active part in politics. It was finally disbanded by the general decree of 13 Feb. 1791. Consult Fabre's 'Etudes historiques sur les Bazoches (2d ed., Paris 1875).

BAZTAN, bäz-tän', or BASTAN, a Pyrenean valley in the extreme north of Spain, having a length of nine miles and an average breadth of four miles. It is inhabited by about 8,000 people, who form, under Spanish supervision, a diminutive republic, at the head of which is the mayor of Elizondo. The citizens of this republic rank with the Spanish nobility and hold special privileges, which were granted them for former services to the Spanish Crown.

BAZZINI, bat-se-në, Antonio, Antonio, Italian musician and composer: b. Brescia 1818; d. 1897. Already at the age of 15 he was an accomplished soloist on the violin, and two years later, at the age of 17, he was director of the choir in one of the largest churches of his native city. Beginning in 1843, he studied for four years at Leipzig, though he had already, two years previously, made a concert tour, taking in Germany, France and England. During this period he made the personal acquaintance of Paganini and was deeply influenced by him. Later he devoted himself more to composition, becoming, first, professor of composition in the Conservatory of Milan, then director. Among his chief compositions are an opera, Turandot' (produced in 1867), a symphonic poem, 'Francesca da Rimini' (1890), and five string quartets.

BDELLIUM, děl'li-ŭm, an aromatic gum found in different countries, but brought chiefly from Arabia and India. It resembles myrrh in its appearance, and is hence often fraudulently substituted for it. It is obtained from Commiphora mokul and C. agallocha. It has a sweet smell but bitter taste, softens readily between the fingers before the fire and dissolves partially in alcohol and still more in water. A better variety of bdellium is that produced by the west African C. africana; it is used in plasters. The bdellium mentioned in Scripture, in Hebrew bedholachh, is rendered in the Septuagint of Gen. ii, 12, anthrax (literally, "burning coal") the carbuncle, ruby and garnet (Liddell and Scott), the red sapphire (Dana); while in Num. xi, 7, it is translated krystallos - rock crystal. Some modern writers, follow

ing the Septuagint translation, make it a minerals, as are the gold and onyx stone with which it is associated in Gen. ii, 12, while the Rabbins Bochart and Gesenius consider that it was a pearl or pearls.

BEACH, Alfred Ely: b. Springfield, Mass., 1 Sept. 1826; d. 1 Jan. 1896. He was a son of Moses Yale Beach, and after receiving an education in the Monson Academy at Monson, Mass., he was associated with his father in the publishing business of the New York Sun. In 1846 he formed a partnership with his life-long friend and schoolmate, Mr. Orson D. Munn, of Monson, Mass., and purchased the Scientific American from Rufus Porter, combining with the business of publishing that of soliciting patents. In 1847 he invented a typewriter which printed raised letters on a strip of paper, intended for the blind, and was awarded a gold medal at the Crystal Palace Exposition. This machine is noteworthy as the first to cover a principle developed into the modern typewriter, viz., a basket of levers arranged in a circle, and delivering their impression on a common centre. In 1867 he constructed a suspended tube eight feet in diameter by 100 feet long, through which passengers were carried back and forth in a tightly fitting car, as the air was exhausted from or forced into the tube by a rotating fan. He also devised means for transporting letters through a tube under the street, by which they could be conveyed directly to the post-office when dropped into a street letterbox.

His most important invention,— a shield for tunneling under streets or rivers without disturbing the surface,- was made in 1868, and became known as the Beach shield. It resembled a gigantic hogshead with the heads removed, the front circular edge being sharp, and the rear end having a thin iron hood. This cylinder is propelled slowly forward through the earth by several hydraulic rams forced out from the rear of the shield, by the operation of a single hydraulic pump, against the completed tunnel in the rear. By this method only the amount of earth to be occupied by the tunnel is excavated. After the shield is forced forward the hydraulic rams are pushed back, and in the thin hood at the rear a new section of the tunnel is constructed. In 1869, by means of such a shield, Mr. Beach constructed a tunnel nine feet in diameter under Broadway, New York, from the corner of Warren street south to a point opposite the lower side of Murray street, and in 1870 a car was sent to and fro on tracks through this tunnel by pneumatic power the first underground transit in New York. From 1872 to 1876 Mr. Beach edited an annual publication entitled Science Record, published by the Scientific American. In 1876 he originated the Scientific American Supple ment, devoted to the publication of scientific matters in extenso, taken largely from exchanges and foreign publications. He was also instrumental in beginning the publication of the Scientific American Builders' Monthly.

BEACH, Charles Fisk, American clergyman: b. Hunter, N. Y., 5 Sept. 1827; d. 25 May 1908. He studied theology at Auburn Theological Seminary, N. Y., was pastor of Presbyterian churches 1854-73, editor and publisher National Presbyterian 1873–95. He studied

tree from the Mount of Olives, from which was made a pulpit stand that is at present in Plymouth Church, Brooklyn.

BEACH, Moses Yale, American inventor and publisher: b. Wallingford, Conn., 15 Jan. 1800; d. 17 July 1868. He received a commonschool education and before he was 21 married, and with a partner opened a cabinet factory at Northampton, Mass. In 1822 he established himself at Springfield, Mass., where he was very successful. He expended considerable money on a stern-wheel steamboat, the first to ply on the Connecticut River above Hartford. A powder engine intended for its propulsion proved ineffective. In 1829 he obtained an interest in a paper-mill and removed to Saugerties, N. Y., where his inventive faculty produced a rag-cutting machine, which he patented and which is still used in all paper-mills. In 1835 he purchased from his brother-in-law, Benjamin Day, the New York Sun, the first penny paper (then a comparatively new sheet), and to Mr. Beach was due the subsequent growth and popularity of that newspaper. In 1846 President Polk sent Mr. Beach on a secret mission to Mexico. In 1847 Mr. Beach retired from active business and settled in his native town, where he died.

American

BEACH, Rex (ELLINGWOOD), author: b. Atwood, Mich., 1 Sept. 1877. After graduating from Rollins College, Winter Park, Fla., he studied law at the Chicago College of Law. His success as a storywriter, however, diverted him from the legal profession. Among his best known works are Pardners' (1905); 'The Spoilers' (1906); 'The Barrier' (1907); The Silver Horde (1909); Going Some' (1910); The Ne'er-do-Well (1911); The Net (1912); The Iron Trail' (1913); The Auction Block' (1914); The Heart of the Sunset' (1915); Rainbow's End (1916); 'Laughing Bill Hyde' (1917).

BEACH. See COAST; DUNE; OCEAN; LAKE; SHORE; SHORE LINES.

BEACH-FLEA, one of a group of small amphipod Crustaceans (Orchestia agilis) which abound under sea wrack near high-water mark. When the dry weed is lifted they will be seen leaping like fleas, by means of the last three pairs of abdominal legs. They are brown, of the same color as the weed and wet sand beneath, about a quarter of an inch in length or about one-half as large as the larger and more southern kind of beach-flea (Talorchestia longicornis), which is nearly an inch long. Consult Arnold, 'Sea Beach at Low Tide.'

BEACH-GRASS. See AMMOPHILA. BEACH-PEA, a leguminous plant growing on beaches. See also LATHYRUS.

BEACH PLANTS. Plants living normally on shores, particularly of the sea, or on the contiguous dunes and marshy strips, are usually characterized by fleshiness, leatheriness, downiness or dense hairiness. This is true of the maritime members of families otherwise quite different in appearance, and these peculiarities, resembling those of plants living in other saline and arid localities, are devices resulting from adaptation to similar desert conditions, for the beach sands become very hot and naturally receive practically no water from either sea or

land, and are unable to conserve the rainwater. Thus the strand becomes a strip of desert. The succulence and unctuousness of such common plants as the seaside goldenrod (Solidago), of the saltmarsh and smooth aster (Aster), of certain huge tropical morning glories (Ipoyellow sand-verbena (Abronia) and others, are mæa), of the marsh-rosemary (Statice), of the evidence of efforts on their part to store such water as may fall upon them, in the cells of their swollen tissues, and also to prevent its evaporation through the stomata. Some plants, as the Polygonella and the marsh-samphire (Salicornia), have further reduced their transpiring surface by assuming a cylindrical shape with scale-like leaves. Terete also are the bases of the leaves of the saltwort (Salsola) which are armed, against the attacks of animals wishing to forage on their juicy foliage, by stout prickles. Many of these fleshy plants also contain salts in their tissues that are strongly retentive of water; the saltwort having formerly been burned to obtain soda from its ashes. Others, like some tamarisks, exude salts that form a crust over the stomata pits in the daytime but by attracting dew and the moisture in the air and becoming liquefied furnish a certain amount of water at night.

The bearberry (Arctostaphylos), the bayberry (Myrica) and the beach plum (Prunus) exhibit the leathery and pubescent type of foliage calculated to resist drought by restraining transpiration by means of the thickened skin and hair. The pale pubescent under-surface of the latter's leaves occurs on plants living near water, and is designed to keep arising moisture from settling in and flooding the

stomata.

Velvety pubescence on all surfaces attaining to the same end is present in the marshmallow (Althea) and the clotbur (Xanthium). Many of the salt-marsh plants are decidedly hairy, serving the purpose of controlling evaporation and preserving the leaf from too much moisture.

Some of these beach-plants are useful aids in preventing the shifting of sands and dunes, the most important being the coarse grasses, marram (Ammophila) and sea-lyme (Elymus). whose tough long roots interweave through the sand, forming a mat that holds it in place. The beach thus reclaimed is gradually settled upon by sundry other sand-binding plants, as the bayberry, bearberry, abronias, beach plums, etc.; and certain trees as the tamarisk, some species of pines and cedars are also found there or may be planted. Consult Marilaun, A. Kerner von, Natural History of Plants'; Scribner, F. L., Sandbinding Grasses' (reprint from Yearbook of Agriculture, 1898), and 'Economic Grasses (United States Division of Agron., Bulletin 14); Stock Ranges of Northwestern California' (Bulletin 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture).

HELEN INGERSOLL..

BEACH-PLUM. See PLUM.
BEACH-ROBIN.

See BRANT-BIRD.

BEACHES, Raised, terraced, level stretches of land, consisting of sand and gravel, and lying at a considerable distance above and away from the sea, but bearing sufficient evidences of having been at one time sea beaches. They are quite common along the coasts of continents in