Give an example in which the infinitive in the sense of a finite verb is used with a subject. Without a subject. What was to of the infinitive originally? Give an example in which to retains its original meaning. In what mood is the verb after may, can, might, could, would, should? After what other verbs is the simple form (without to) used? Which form is used after the passive of these verbs? Explain "They are not willing to do so much as listen to his story." How may we determine whether an objective following a transitive verb is the object of that verb or the subject of the infinitive following? Why is "I expected to have found him at home" incorrect? "Please excuse me"? "I will try and see him"? "I can go if I wish to"? Is "He commenced to speak" correct? Explain "The house is building." (See Remark 3, p. 102.)

RULE XI.-What is the rule for prepositions? What is the preceding word sometimes called? Give an example in which the antecedent term is omitted. How may "He came from and is now returning to France" be improved? Give the proper preposition instead of those incorrectly used in the following passages: He was accused for having done this. This is akin with that. [The principal errors are presented under the head of "Correct the errors."]

RULE XII.—What is the rule for adverbs? Give an example in which the modi fied word is omitted. Give examples of the improper use of adjectives for adverbs. Of adverbs for adjectives. What is no before a noun? Give examples in which no is used for not. How has but come to be used in the sense of only? In what sense is it used with never? In affirming equality what adverb is used before the adjective? In denying equality? Give an example of the improper use of most for almost. Of way for away. Of like for as, or as if. Of directly for as soon as. Of illy for ill. Of how or how that for that. Of the improper annexing of ever to an interrogative pronoun. Of the improper use of mighty, awful, etc. Of two negatives. How should adverbs be placed? Give examples of the violation of this principle. Where should the adverb enough be placed? What is said of placing an adverb between to and the simple form of the infinitive?

RULE XIII.-What is the rule for conjunctions? What is said concerning the parts connected by both and, either... or, and neither ... nor? What are sometimes used for either and neither? Explain "This always has been, and it always will be admired." What is the impropriety in "It is neither acid or alkaline"? After negatives in general which of the two conjunctions or and nor should be used? What is than? What is that?

RULE XIV. What is the rule for interjections? In "Ah me!" what is me? What is said of "Jane and myself"? Is "The boy who studies" correct? What relative must be used when the proposition is to convey an additional idea? When is that used in preference to who or which? What is said of interchanging that with who or which? Of interchanging thou and you? What caution about the position of relative propositions? What is said of than whom?

What is said of such expressions as "I had never known before how short life really was"? Of such expressions as "The officer rushes upon him and struck him with his sword"? What is said of employing the past tense to denote something future at some past time? Should we say, To-morrow is Wednesday" or "To-morrow will be Wednesday"? What is said of the use of had have for had? What is said of such expressions as "If he has the money, he will pay it"? What is used if the thing supposed is something that may occur in future time? Is shall or should always expressed? What is said of "If he had the money, he would pay it"? Of "If he had had the money, he would have paid it"? What is said of such expressions as "He looked as if he were an honest man"? Of "He inquired if he were on the right way"? Give an example of the improper use of was for were.

PUNCTUATION.

PUNCTUATION treats of the points and marks used in written language.

The word punctuation is derived from the Latin punctum, a point.

The chief use of the points is to show more clearly the relation between the different parts of the discourse.

The principal points are the period (.), the comma (,), the semicolon (;), and the colon (:).

The general principles regulating the use of these chief points may be stated thus:

The period separates sentences; the comma separates the propositions of a compound or a complex sentence; the semicolon separates from the principal proposition something not so closely connected with it as are portions set off by the comma; the colon separates something which is not formally connected with the preceding part of the sentence.

Remarks.-1. These points should not be regarded as intended to denote pauses. They are grammatical, not elocutionary points. As they point out the relation which the different parts of the discourse sustain to each other, they assist the reader in making the proper pauses; but this should be regarded as merely a secondary use, with which grammar has nothing to do. A point is sometimes to be used where no pause is to be made; as in yes, sir, and no, sir; and a pause is often to be made where no point is admissible; as, "Prosperity gains friends, but adversity tries them." Here a pause must be made after prosperity and after adversity; but no point is admissible.

2. In the use of the points there is great diversity, which has arisen chiefly from confounding two distinct things. If the points are regarded in their proper character, as merely indicating the relations existing between the different parts of the discourse, the subject is greatly simplified.

"The respect which we justly feel for Clarendon as a writer must not blind us to the faults which he committed as a statesman."-Macaulay. One who regards the points as intended to denote pauses would place a comma after writer, a pause being necessary in reading; but one who regards only the relation of the parts of the sentence would insert no point, the grammatical relation between the subject and the predicate being too intimate to admit of separation.

THE PERIOD.

The period marks the close of a sentence; as, "Fear God. Honor the king. Have charity toward all men."

Remarks.-1. As every part of a continuous discourse is connected with the other parts, it is sometimes difficult to decide where the separation is such as to

require to be marked by the period. Two things which one person would regard as so distinct as to require to be expressed in two sentences may to another seem so closely connected as to require to be expressed in one sentence. When a writer is in doubt as to the closeness of connection between two ideas he will of course be in doubt as to the point to be used.

2. A period is sometimes placed even before conjunctions; as, "The amount of treasure in the Capital did not equal the sanguine expectations that had been formed by the Spaniards. But the deficiency was supplied by the plunder which they had collected at various places on their march."-Prescott.

3. This point is used after abbreviations; as, "J. Smith, Esq., addressed the meeting." In this use the period is merely a mark of abbreviation, having nothing to do with the division of the discourse. The same points follow it that would be used if the word were written in full; as, "An address was delivered by J. Smith, Esq., who was frequently applauded." If the abbreviation is at the end of a sentence, however, the same point answers to mark both the abbreviation and the close of the sentence.

EXERCISES.

Transcribe the following, inserting a period wherever required and making the letter after the period a capital letter:

In a little thatched cottage near a thrifty forest lived a hardworking couple the husband was a fagot-maker, and the wife used to spend all her spare time in spinning they had only one child, a little daughter, who was about eight years old she was a handy little maid, who wished to do every thing she could to assist her mother she was an early riser she helped her mother in getting ready her father's breakfast before he went to work after breakfast she made every thing in the house tidy and orderly she would go on short errands for her mother her grandmother had made for her a little red hood the little red hood looked so bright and smart among the green trees that it could always be seen a long way off.

No praise of Addison's style can exaggerate its merits its art is perfectly marvellous no change of time can render the workmanship obsolete his style has that nameless urbanity in which we recognize the perfection of manner.-Bulwer.

As we vary our study in books, so we should vary our study in men among our friends and associates we should have some whose pursuits differ from our own nothing more conduces to liberality than facile intercourse with various minds the commerce of intellect loves distant shores.-Bulwer.

Eustace went on deck a dark night had come on by this time the ship was tranquilly moving on with a fair wind few figures were moving on deck the officer of the watch stood on the poop.Hannay.

Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep be of the same mind one toward another mind not high things, but condescend to men of low estate be not wise in your own conceit

recompense to no man evil for evil provide things honest in the sight of all men.-English Bible.

No genius can afford to dispense with loyalty and honor loyalty and honor necessitate the attention to business every man to whom you make a promise that you will do such and such work in such a time should rest assured that your word is as firm as the rock of Gibraltar confidence is the first principle of all business.-Bulwer.

Punctuate the following passage so as to make it describe a bad character; then punctuate it so as to make it describe a good character:

He is an old and experienced man in vice and wickedness he is never found to oppose the works of iniquity he delights in the downfall of neighbors he never rejoices in the prosperity of any of his fellowcreatures he is always ready to assist in destroying the peace of society he takes no pleasure in relieving distress he is uncommonly diligent in sowing disorder among his friends and acquaintances he takes no pride in laboring to promote the cause of morality he has been industrious in his work he will receive his reward.

By being spoken as they are punctuated the following doggerel verses in "A Midsummer-Night's Dream" express the very opposite of the intended idea. See if you can punctuate them in such a way as to express the idea that the players wish to please the audience:

If we offend, it is with our good will.

That you should think we come not to offend,

But with good-will. To show our simple skill,
That is the true beginning of our end.
Consider, then, we come but in despite.

We do not come as minding to content you,

Our true intent is. All for your delight

We are not here. That you should here repent you,

The actors are at hand, and by their show

You shall know all that you are like to know.

THE COMMA.*

I. The principal use of the comma is to separate the propositions of a compound or a complex sentence; as, "Life is short, and art is long;" "Phocion was poor, though he might have been rich;" "Phocion, though he might have been rich,

The word comma etymologically means something cut off, and it formerly denoted the portion of the sentence cut off from the rest. It now denotes the point that marks the cutting off.

was poor." In this last sentence the proposition though he might have been rich is cut off by a comma before and a comma after it. "But, though I used every exertion, I could not effect it." What is here cut off?

II. As a noun-proposition performs the office of a noun (see p. 170), it should not be cut off from the word with which it is connected when a noun performing the same office would not be cut off.

Therefore a noun-proposition should not be cut off when it is— 1. Subject of a verb; as, "That he will succeed is evident."

2. Object of a transitive verb; as, “I believe that he will succeed." Remark.-Noun-propositions which are the objects of such verbs as say, cry, exclaim, reply are cut off when they contain the words spoken; as, "He said, 'I will But when the substance only is given the comma is not used; as, "He said that he would come."

come.

3. Predicate- nominative; as, "The general belief is that he will succeed."

4. Object of a preposition; as, "This will depend on how it is done."

III. An adjective-proposition which describes is not cut off; as, "The girl who is always laughing shows want of sense." Here who is always laughing describes the girl that shows want of sense.

But if the proposition presents an additional idea, it is cut off; as, "He went up to a large and beautiful house, which he entered."

"I went to California with my cousin who had been there before." "I went to California with my cousin, who had been there before." In the former sentence who had been there before points out what cousin is meant; it assumes something. In the latter sentence the same proposition is employed to assert something additional.

"You have said something of which you ought to be ashamed." "You have said something, of which you ought to be ashamed." The latter sentence represents the saying of any thing as a thing to be ashamed of.

"Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and die." "Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers. which bloom and die." If there were a class of flowers which do not bloom and die, it would be proper to omit the comma, so that the adjective-proposition should describe the other class. Cut off by the comma, this proposition asserts that all flowers bloom and die.