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drains than stones, but in my neighborhood stones are the plentiest and cheapest. I have known drains made with stones last twenty years. If the drain that I have made should get stopped up in twenty or thirty years, I have no doubt but that there will be stones enough to make another one. A SMALL FARMER, Glenville, N. Y.

CULTURE OF BROOM-CORN.

[For the Country Gentleman and Cultivator.] VENEERED HOUSES.

EDS. Co. GENT.-I notice that many of your correspondents are very grateful to Mr. Woodward for his articles on Balloon houses. I shall in this article try to tell you how they veneer those same balloon frame houses in this city and county, which gives them the appearance of solid brick houses, and in many respects far superior, "cost about the same, or nearly so."

It is done as follows: house built as all balloon frames

MESSRS. L. TUCKER & SON-Will you be so kind as to give me some information through your excellent paper-lined with one inch boards on ontside the foundation as to the culture of broom-corn-when and how to plant, gather, &c., also how much seed is required to plant per acre. It is entirely a new crop to me, and any information you can give concerning it will be thankfully received. Is it considered a paying crop, and what is the average product per acre?

Highland Home, Va.

J. WM. DANNER.

We can give some general information on the subject, but many particulars required for its successful culture can be only learned by experience. As it requires better soil and more skill than ordinary crops of common corn, it also pays better under proper management. Broomcorn will yield from 500 to 800 lbs. of the brush per acre, which if prepared in the best manner, will sell for a hundred dollars or more a ton-it has in some instances brought two hundred.

wall must extend far enough beyond the sills for the brick to rest on, the brick all laid up in good mortar, so as to present a face of 2 by 8 inches; and when the wall is laid let the head of spike be held close to the brick, that it up five brick high, drive a inch spike into each studding; may in driving, scrape itself into the brick, thereby holding it firm and tight. Spike every tier of 5 brick, until finished. Studding here are generally 15 inches apart; it will therefore take 1 spike for every five brick high, and 15 inches long; 74 brick lay up one square foot. veneered the same way, and if not plumb can fill space beOld frame buildings with weather boarding on can be

tween boards and brick with mortar, to keep out rats and mice. In an old frame house you will have to make the foundation wall wider, that the brick may have a resting place.

The advantages claimed over a brick house are that they are much safer in a storm, and always dry and no dampness whatever; and over a frame house they are much warmer, and do not need painting every few years, which is quite a saving; and lastly, will last at least one generation longer; and I may add to those coming from houses in cities, that to veneer them with brick saves quite a nice percentage in insurance against fire.

If you think this manner of veneering balloon houses will be news to many of your readers, please give it to: them. W. S. HAND. Milwaukee.

The land should be rich-it cannot well be too rich. Alluvial flats are especially adapted to its culture, as they are warm, fertile, even, and free from stone. The land should be well plowed, and if after a previous crop, with a deep running plow to turn under the stalks. The soil should be harrowed and rolled, to have a smooth surface. It may then be neatly and accurately marked out with a marker, in rows a little more than three feet apart. A drill follows these marks and deposits the seed. A greater crop may be raised by planting in drills, but unless the land is previously quite free from the seeds of weeds, it will be attended with too much hand labor, and hills will MESSRS. L. TUCKER & SON-Please allow me to give be better. The quantity of seed required is about one my experience in reply to an inquiry by J. C., on the treatment of a cracked or split hoof in a horse. It has peck per acre, but many plant more, and thin out the sur-been my misfortune to own such a one, and to discover a plus plants. The ground should be kept well cultivated-most infallible cure; and from the construction of the horif previously clean, it will need no hand hoeing—especially | se's hoof, I think that any rational mind, however inexpeif the proper kind of cultivators are employod to throw rienced, cannot fail to coincide with me. If not, let them the earth against the stalks as soon as they are stout enough for the operation.

Two periods are selected for harvesting-the first, as soon as the brush is formed, while it is yet green, which furnishes the best material, but no seed; and the second, while the seed is in the dough state. If left any later, the brush will be too brittle for value. The stalks are bent down, by laying those of two rows across each other obliquely, so as to form a kind of table of two rows, with a passage betwern each table. Six or eight inches below the brush the stalk is cut off in harvesting, and carried in, and the drying completed on poles spread one or two inches thick. Such of our readers as are successful cultivators of this crop, may be able to furnish valuable details of the various parts of the operation, or improvements on this mode of management, in which case we should be glad to hear from them.

A CHEAP PAINT.-Make a thin paste of wheat or rye flour -strain it, add sufficient venetian red or ochre to make a thick paint-put on one or two coats. Dissolve one pound of glue in three gallons of water-mix in your paint, and put on for It will look as well as oil paint.

the last coat.

FOR CHEAP OIL CLOTH, Ochre, mixed with paste, makes a good foundation; it fills up the cloth and makes it better to paint upon.

[For the Cultivator and Country Gentleman.] Remedy for Cracked Hoofs.

try the experiment as I did, and then deny it if they can.
I am no veterinary surgeon, nor did I ever employ one
more than three or four times in my life; yet I use the
horse in as many shapes as any other one person of our
neighborhood. Fast and slow, heavy and light, old and
young, are all inhabitants of my stable at once, and I am
content with the number that have so far proven
fix." My theory and practice is, to study as nearly as I
can the nature of that with which I am dealing, and treat
it accordingly to the best of my knowledge, be it horse,
fowl, soil, or what-not.

out of

But to the subject-my cure for which is: Simply make cross-wise of the crack, and parallel with the horny hoof, an incision at the extreme top of the horny substance, some two inches each side of, (across and above) the crack. The old crack, if left to its way, will continue to grow up as fast as the hoof grows down-if not checked by a crosscut. After this, with careful treatment till there is a new

hoof formed, the horse will be as sound in that as any other foot he's got.

If J. C., or any one else, wishes to try this method, and takes care not to allow the old crack to tear its way upward after the new hoof forms, he will most assuredly ef fect a permanent cure, of which I would be happy to hear, as I know the troubles and trials of such cases to my entire satisfaction. FRANK RUFFNER. Hamilton Co., O.

WHITEWASH your young apple trees with good fresh slacked lime before the buds start. It will scale off, and take the bark-louse with it.

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BARLEY AND ITS CULTURE.

The culture of barley has been practiced, as far as is known, as long as that of any other grain, and it flourish es in widely diverse situations. Though evidently a native of warm climates, it will grow in very cold ones-maturing in favorable seasons as far north as 72°, and in the Himalayas at an elevation of from ten to thirteen thousand feet above the sea. In the high valleys of the Adirondacs, as mentioned by a writer in our State Transactions, luxuriant crops of barley flourish where Indian corn was never planted, the seasons being too short and subject to frequent

frosts.

ter harrow would be the best implement for the purpose. When green-sward is to be sown, the double plow gives the best prepared seed-bed. We have known good crops grown on sward turned under as deeply as possible with a large plow, and the seed then covered with a shallow set gang-plow-to be harrowed and rolled afterwards. If seeded to grass, the seed should be sown before rolling-the passage of this implement covering the ground sufficiently. It should be borne in mind by those who would grow this grain, that thorough tillage, a deep, well pulverised soil is very important. Maturing quickly, it requires good culture, that the soil may give it immediate and abundant supplies of nutrition throughout its growth.

As to the time of sowing, it should be about as early, as the season will allow of adequate préparation. The crop stands about three months on the ground, and it is important that it gets a fair start before the summer drouth comes on. Too great haste, in sowing, however, may prove injurious, especially if followed by cold, sour weather, unfavorable to the germination of the seed, for some weeks, as in that case the soil becomes so hardened as to hinder the success of the crop.

Barley suits itself to varied soils as well as climates, but the best barley is grown on warm, rich and mellow loams, In England the terms barley-land and wheat-land are the usual designation of light and heavy soils adapted especially to the growth of these grains. On clay lands the produce of barley is greater, but it is of a coarse quality and does not malt as well-on loams it is plump and full of meal, and on light calcareous soils, the crop is light, the grain thin in the skin, of a rich color, and well adapted to malting. These are the characteristics of English barley, where great attention is given to this grain, and very fine The amount of seed usually given to an acre, varies qualities produced, but they are also true of the differing from two to three and four bushels-poor, early sown and product of the soils of this country. A soil that will grow mellow soils requiring least. If drilled in, a less quantity tolerable rye, will produce inferior barley, and a heavy is required; and the practice of rolling when the young soil better suited to wheat, as already remarked, will do plants are a few inches in height, if the ground is dry and the same. Mucky soils will occasionally produce good porous, has lately been practiced to a considerable extent, barley-(we have seen some very heavy crops grown the and is found serviceable in giving support to the roots, next year after the surface muck had been burned over, and in causing the plants to tiller and increasing their thus giving the land a large dressing of ashes,) but they vigor. We question the utility of heavy seeding, if proare far from sure for this crop. It may appear favorably per care is taken in selecting good seed and properly covuntil near heading, and then turn yellow and produce noth-ering the same. The best seed barley is that of a lively ing, particularly if hot, dry weather occurs. color, free from blackness at the germ end, and with a thin rience, a deep gravelly soil in the best condition for giv- skin. It is advisable to change for that grown at a dising vigorous vegetation-which will bear drouth and pro- tance, and on different soil, occasionally-as without atduce a full growth of straw-if favored by a properly tention to these cautions, barley often deteriorates, bemoist and warm season, will produce a large crop of bar-coming coarser and lighter, with thick skin and little flour, ley-from forty to sixty bushels per acre.

manure;

In our expe

In a rotation, barley should not follow wheat or oats, nor should a second crop come in immediately after the first, without applying a liberal dressing of decomposed and we think it the best course to seed to clover, which succeeds well when sown on barley and dressed with plaster. Pasturing or mowing this for two years, we may then manure for corn or roots, and afterwards re-crop with barley.

from year to year.

In harvesting barley it is important to cut it at the right stage, when neither too green nor too ripe. If rather green, the grain shrinks, and is of light weight; if fully ripe, it shells easily, is liable to become discolored, and the straw is of less value. When the head begins to assume a reddish cast and drops down upon the straw, the proper period of harvesting has arrived-and as after this the grain ripens rapidly, it should at once be cared for. It may be The preparation of the soil for barley as already notic-mown or cradled, or cut with a reaper; if the straw is ed, should be thoroughly made, as a deep, mellow tilth is long it should be bound; if short, with proper forks it can most favorable to productiveness, and barley suffers much be pitched at once from the swath, and stored without from a foul state of the soil. In those sections where bar-binding. Barley should be secured as soon as thoroughly ley has been grown most extensively, it is largely the dry, which will not be long in favorable weather. practice to sow barley after a hoed crop, when the earth Barley straw, well cured and not over ripe, is readily is left light and free from weeds. After such crops-well eaten by all kinds of neat stock, and is thought worth manured and thoroughly cultivated, of course-a good about the same per ton as corn-fodder or inferior hay. By yield generally follows, larger often than if the same ma- elevating the straw-carrier above the lower sieves of the nure had been applied directly to the barley. These corn separator when threshing, the bearded chaff may be thrown' stubbles are generally plowed in autumn, especially when aside, and thus it may be fed to sheep without the injury of rather retentive soil, and care is usually taken to pro-to the wool which otherwise occurs. vide proper surface drainage at this time, that no stagnant The diseases and insects attacking this crop are not water may remain upon them during the winter. A fall-numerous, but when they prevail, often destroy the profit plowed clover ley answers well for this purpose, but should of its culture. A kind of smut called the barley brand, be well worked in the spring. We would first harrow well lengthwise the furrow, and then work with the gang-plow or wheat cultivator before sowing-or, perhaps, the coul

which sometimes prevails in cold, wet seasons, proves a serious discase. It is a fungus parasite, having its seat in the ear, and developing a sort of woody tissue between.

1

the layers of the fungus. The outer covering of the grain remains sound, but the internal structure is blackened and destroyed. A species of smut, differing, we think, from that above described, was largely developed in some sections last season. Just before ripening the barley fields were black with smut heads, which in a few days fell to the ground, leaving the bare stalk in its place. There are also two or more species of barley fly, which pass their larva state in the straw, injuring largely the yield of grain, as they prevail to a greater or less extent. The wheat midge is sometimes found in the heads of grain, especially in situations near wheat fields, or where the midge was found the previous year.

feet, and then flat against the boards to the top. Now the kiln is complete; the space around the block in the basement serving to store charcoal in, and the object of the necessary to dry hops economically, and not more than wall being that of security against fire. Two kilns are one acre-good hops-must be attempted with only one kiln. The cost of such a building is, I think, about $40 in Wisconsin; and it is useful for many other parposes than drying hops, though I have not time to specify. of Sept. If tagged-as the brown appearance given them Hops are usually fit to pack between the 5th and 10th by threshing and bruising by the wind when damp or wet, is called-they must be picked before fully ripe. They are ripe when the yellow powder about the seed is easily shaken out; when the seed is nearly black; when the Where the ravages of the above named enemies of the hop itself is firm and somewhat stiff, and rattles like dry leaves in handling. barley crop are slight or entirely unknown, (as they are, They are picked over frames, divided into compartwe believe, in many sections where it has been but recent-ments or boxes, the measure being known at so much per ly introduced as a general farm crop,) the average yield bushel or box. The vines are cut as the poles are pulled; and profit of barley compares favorably with that of other but not before, as they wilt rapidly; and the less they are grains. As feed for stock, it ranks next to rye and Indian wilted before drying, the better will the sample be therecorn, and mixed with these grains and with oats, and after. An hour in a yard at picking time will give the ground, is excellent food for all kinds of stock. whole details better that it could be explained in a whole column of this page. The hops are put from the boxes into large sacks, in which they are conveyed to the kiln; and the less they are crushed and broken by these processes, the better the dried product will appear.

[For the Country Gentleman and Cultivator.] HOPS--PICKING AND CURING-II. There are many varieties of the Humulus lupulus- There is a difference of opinion as to how thick they some large, others smaller; some of red tinge, others of should be laid on the kiln. Six inches is, according to a greenish white color; some grow at irregular intervals, my experience, thick or deep enough, but it should not be others in somewhat close clusters. The same sort is some- much less than this, or a larger portion of charcoal will be times known by different names in different places. In consumed by the rapid passage of heat through them after some districts, the Mayfield grape, a white hop that sets they are about half dried. The fire must be small at first, in compact clusters, very similar to some varieties of the and gradually increased until about the fourth hour, when grape, and denominated simply the grape hop, is a favorite the maximum heat is required. It requires eight hours variety; but there are improved sorts that are considered nine if they are wet-to dry a kiln of hops, and the last superior to this even, it is reported. I should prefer, how-hour or upwards the heat is reduced; the water of the ever, a good medium sized white hop, that grows in large hops having been before this driven off or evaporated. clusters, both because those of this description yield well, Sulphur, in powder, is used by many about the third hour, and are more quickly and economically gathered-a very to bleach the hops or give it a bright, whitish green tinge, material consideration-when the time for that important and from its well known effects in bleaching straw bonnets, operation comes round, just previous to the annual return etc., we can generally anticipate some improvement in of the " sere and yellow leaf," in the autumnal drapery of color from its moderate use; but it is not probable that the majestic, beautiful forest trees. the quality of the sample is improved by the application Hop drying pre-supposes a drying kiln. In their best in this or any other way. The hops are often examined form kilus are costly. Having used and seen others use as they dry, especially when the fire is strongest, because a cheap kiln, I will here briefly outline its form for the un- scorching spoils them at once; this is known by a brown intiated, if such there be, who feel any interest in the color and the smell of burning. To prevent this is indissubject. This can be available only to those who have a pensable, hence the watchful care required. As to whether large barn or other floor on which to lay the heaps, as they it is best to turn the hops, when a little more than half, are dried: Build a wall three feet high, 16 feet by 12. say two-thirds, dry, there is a difference of opinion, some In the center of 12 feet square, in one end of this base-contending that if the undried ones be put under, their ment, build a solid block of masonry 6 by 6 feet, and 18 escaping vapor is absorbed by the dryer hops above them. in. high. Now raise a light balloon frame, 16 by 12, and But I rather incline to turning, because it appears proba16 feet high, on the basement wall; and put on this a roof ble, 1st, that the moist hops must dry sooner when nearer of one-third pitch or grade. A small frame of 2 by 4 oak the fire or head, and 2d, because the dry hops with which scantling is now laid on the central block, having an inside they are covered can scarcely absorb much moisture while space of four feet by four. Oak studding are laid on this, they are on the kiln, and are themselves charged with heat and carried up-spreading, funnel-like-till they reach a sufficient to produce evaporation. When the hops are so perpendicular height of 8 or 9 feet in the clear. Here dry that the core of three-fourths of them will readily break, oak joist, 2 by 6, cross from the studding to studding of and that of the remaining fourth being only a little greasy, the frame. On top of these are laid strips of pine, or instead of tough, to the touch, the hops are dried enough, other wood that is not apt to warp much, 14 by 3 inches and must be quickly taken off, unless the fire has become the deepest way downward, with 14 inch spaces between small, or nearly gone out, and the heat is much reduced, them, making a "spaced" drying-floor 11.8 by 12 feet. or the fire removed, as for instance on a Saturday night or The space of four feet on one side is floored five feet later. above the wall, and four below the top of the inclosing frame of the kiln. This floor is necessary to stand on in examining the hops when drying, taking them off, or putting on, &c., and is accessible from the outside by a stepladder. A ventilator in center of the roof ridge is indispensable. On the side in the basement where the four feet space is left, an opening 15 by 18 inches is left in the frame, the bottom of which is the block. The frame being lined with inch board previously, the opening and interior is lined with brick, set in well-tempered mortar; the brick being laid the thickest way for the first three

Hops are laid in heaps as thick as convenient; in a warm room is best; and allowed to sweat nine or ten days, when they are fit to be pressed, baled, and disposed of. Hop growers here, tell me that American hop-presses very much more expedite and economize the process of bagging or bailing, than the antiquated English system of treading into a deep sack or well-hole; and it is not to be wondered at that Americans have arranged the best method of performing such work, considering the superior mechanical skill exhibited in most of our industrial avocations. J. W. CLARKE,

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Proper Time to Cut Grass for Hay.

The above is a question about which good practical farmers entertain quite opposite views; though they seem to agree in this, that the value of hay as food for farm stock depends very much upon the time or season of its growth when mown. But notwithstanding this apparent agreement, there is still a wide difference of opinion as to the time the grass possesses the most value for winter food for cattle, horses and sheep. Consequently, practice varies according as these different views are entertained. Some farmers cut their grass as soon as the bloom appears, or even earlier, and others at all subsequent stages until the seeds are ripe and the grasses are so dry that the product may be stored almost as soon as cut. "Such differences of practice must necessarily be followed by a wide variation in its value. That such variation actually exists is evidenced by the fact, that upon the same quantity of hay, and this made from the same grasses, the stock of one farmer will thrive and that of another will dwindle."

plant is not cut in the flower, a great part of the nutriment of its stems and leaves is wasted."

The Secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture issued circulars among the farmers of that State, propounding a series of questions upon practical matters connected with the farm. In the report of 1859, is found responses from many farmers, in reference to the proper time of cutting grass for hay. A large majority of them say that the English grasses should be cut while in blossom, and clover as soon as a portion of the heads have become of a brown color.

Says Mr. Sec'y GOODALE, in this Report, "The principal point to be inquired into in order to decide the best period for cutting, is, when does grass contain the most nutriment? And to this, no definite and precise answer can be given, which will be alike correct in all cases, for reason that in different grasses this stage is not the same, being earlier in some than others; but for a general answer, both theory and the opinions derived from the experience of the great majority of intelligent and observing farmers, concur in the reply-" when in full blossom, or while the bloom is falling." At this period, most

This contrast in the thrift of the cattle on adjoining farms, is frequently occasioned by the fact, that one far-grasses have, so far as can be judged, obtained from the mer cuts his grass early, or mostly while in blossom, the other letting his grass erop stand till the seed had generally matured; this farmer contending that the seeds were the most important and nutritive portions of the hay, besides, he says it will "spend better." Cattle fed through our long winters upon this late cut hay, generally go to pasture real "spring poor."

Of late years, the attention of farmers has been more directly called to this important subject, through the agency of many of the State and County Agricultural Societies. The Secretaries of some of these Associations have caused large numbers of circulars to be distributed among the farmers, containing a series of interrogatories relating to practical matters pertaining to the farm, &c. Prominent among these questions, is the following: "At what stage of growth do you prefer to cut grass to make into English and into swale hay, and what is your reason for your preference?"

soil and from the atmosphere, the greatest amount which they will have at any stage of growth, which is of value as food for animals, and these exist at this period in the most valuable form. The changes which take place subsequently are chiefly within the plant; a part of the starch, sugar, gum, albumen, &c., soon go to assist in the formation of seed, and a part to constitute woody fibre, which is indigestible and worthless; and so much as is thus converted, is actual loss. Of hay cut at a later stage, cattle will doubtless eat less, and some infer from this, that it will "spend better;" but the true reason why they cat less is, because the system can digest and assimilate less. The actual benefit derived from hay is in proportion to the available nutriment contained in it."

As far as our observation extends, the prevalent opinion is, that more loss is sustained by late, than by too early cutting. That grass is sometimes mown too early, there is no doubt; but as a general rule, the farmer had better In 1856, Mr. FLINT, Sec'y of the Mass. Board of Agri- err on the safe side, and commence haying early, if he culture, issued circulars (containing the above quoted que-has a large amount to harvest, even if he suffers some loss ries,) to practical farmers all over the State. "The replies from about one hundred and fifty towns are, that farmers prefer to cut the principal grasses, timothy and red top, when in full blossom; red clover when about half the heads are in blossom; and swale grass before it is ripe, and generally before blossoming, if possible, so as to prevent it from becoming hard and wiry."

"This practice is unquestionably founded on a correct principle, the object of the farmer being to secure his hay so as to make it most like grass in its perfect condition. The nutritive substances of grass are those, which are, for the most part, soluble in water, such as sugar, gluten, and other compounds. Now if this is so, it is evident that the grass should be cut at the time when it contains the largest amount of these principles. From its earliest growth the sugar and other soluble substances gradually increase till they reach their maximum per centage in the blossom, or when the seed is fully formed in the cell. From this period the saccharine matter constantly diminishes, and the woody fiber, perfectly insoluble in water and innutritious, increases till after the seeds have ma-tured, when the plant begins to decay. Of course, if the

by shrinkage of the first mown. It gives him a better chance to "make hay while the sun shines," for he has a longer period to secure his crop before it is "dead ripe," and sometimes saves hiring help, when labor is at its highest price, and scarce at that.

We have attended many auction sales of hay, and almost without exception, the early cut and well secured hay brought a higher price than that made from the same varieties of grasses, but not cut till the seeds had matured.

We think much might be gained by sowing in different fields, those varieties of grass seeds that mature at about the same time. The southern and western clovers usually ripen before red-top and timothy are sufficiently matured for mowing. Orchard grass, June grass, meadow fescue, and some other varieties of grasses, worthy of cultivation, are fit for the scythe about the time the above named clovers are, and a mixture of these would undoubtedly make a better quality of hay, than the clover alone. The fields of such grasses could be cleared of their crops before the northern clover, red-top and timothy would need cutting. These kinds, on well prepared lands, frequently yield large crops of excellent hay, if cut at the right period,

178

and made mostly in the cock. Some farmers object to the culture of the northern or pea-vine variety of clover, on account of the size and coarseness of its stems; other farmers entertain different views-we would refer our readers to two notices of this variety of clover, at pages 17, and 75, present volume of the Co. GENT.

a ditch, should be provided at the side, and if the soil is not naturally quite porons, the road-bed should be well turnpiked, so that the water may ran off readily at each side. Good sluice-ways or culverts, should be provided in all places where necessary-a matter too often neglected, to the great detriment of the roads.

As to the material for road-making, it should be remembered that gravel and hard-pan, or gravelly loam, are the best, and the surface soil-often mere muck--the worst material that can be employed. Better leave a road unworked, than to form with any soil composed largely of vegetable mould, a narrow track, which will always become muddy and rutted in long rains, and impassable with heavy loads in the spring and fall. In many places no turnpike is needed; and when care is taken to keep the track clear of stone, and proper drains open, it will remain in a better state than if thrown up in the usual mànLarge stone, say above the size of a man's fist,

In our own experience with this variety of clover, when cut in blossom, and mostly made in the cock, we find our cattle to be fond of it, and they eat the entire stalks as clean as they do that of the finer grasses. There is another variety of coarse or large growing clover, that is highly recommended by some who have grown it somewhat extensively it is the Swedish or Alsike clover. Like the northern, it makes a large growth; its blossoms are white, and its duration in the soil is much longer than the red clovers. For seed, the first crops of these should be saved. The aftermath or second crop does not, like the smaller varieties, produce seed worth saving.. Of the different methods of curing hay, we may have should never be used in filling ruts in roads, however deep they may be, and they should not be more than half this something to say in a future paper. size if placed near the surface. They are very sure to work up when the ground is softened by thawing up in spring. Let them first be broken finely, and they will beNo loose or projecting stones come so fixed and consolidated by the travel over them, as to remain permanent. should be allowed to remain in the roadway at any season.

L. B.

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Roads---Their Construction and Abuses. Whatever may be the progress of the railway interest, the train cannot stop at every man's door, and the great

means of intercommunication must ever remain the common turnpiked highway. In their adaptation to this use and good condition at all times, all classes are interested -none more so, however, than the agricultural—and in the matter of business and convenience, they may be compared to the veins and arteries wherein the life-blood of the nation's commercial and social prosperity circulates and vivifies, from the Lakes to the Gulf-from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Let us offer a few hints for the benefit of those who have the official care of them in our goodly State; who are to enter upon their "honors" about these days, as by statute provided.

ner.

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One of the first things to be done in spring, and in many places it has already been attended to, is to pass over the roads with the leveling scraper, which smooths the surface, clears it of stone, and fills up the ruts and smaller hollows. These scrapers are in common usé, the most we have seen might be improved by having the tongue put in differently, so as to allow the scraper to pass diagonally along the road, instead of at right angle, which would better round up the road-bed, and correct the tendency to flatten down naturally prevailing. These should In laying out our roads, the mathematical axiom that be used more frequently-as often at least as the roads "a straight line is the shortest distance between two become rutted and uneven-and where proper turnpikes points," has been too generally regarded, for, unless it is have already been formed, but little other labor will be also a level line, the paradoxical proverb that "the long-found necessary. est way around is the shortest way home," comes practically nearer the truth. No unnecessary curves should be allowed, but a good road rather winds around hills than runs over them, and may often do this without increasing its length. And the load which a given power will draw on a level, will require nearly four times that power to draw it up a rise of one foot in a hundred. Hence it has been established as a rule in road-making, that the length of a road may be increased twenty times the height to be avoided, with true economy in the result.

A hint may be useful on the manner of applying the labor assessed in many districts. It is not often of any great amount, or enough to effect any very extensive improvement in the highway, and hence is often frittered away in "here a little and there a little," begun and not finished, of slight advantage to the roads upon which it is applied. It would be the better way to employ the work assessed, in making permanent improvements-like draining, turnpiking, or gravelling a portion of the road thoroughly each year-which would in time, make the whole one of the best character.

One more topic we must touch upon and we have done. We have spoken of making and mending; now let us descant briefly upon the abuses of roads.

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Most of our roads, however, are already established, and little can be done at leveling or curving-but much may be accomplished in the way of draining, gravelling, and rendering permanent. The great difference between a Until we see some man's pig a permanent tenant of his good road and a bad one, usually lies in the fact of their perfect or imperfect drainage. It is as impossible for a good parlor, or his cow stabled in his kitchen, we must allow road to exist where water stands stagnant, and can only people generally to have some idea of appropriateness, pass off by evaporation, as it is to raise good crops on the and of the uses for which a thing is designed. But how A first-rate underdrain to carry off all strange must be his sense of the fitness of things, whose same kind of soil. surplus water, will be the most direct means of reducing whole farm or manufactory disgorges itself on the public these mortar beds or bottomless ruts to smoothness and highway-making it the receptacle of all manner of usesolidity, and will do it in a wonderful short space of time. less lumber, and all sorts of business operations. It is his In many cases, roads are wet and bad because the sur- lumber, wood, and barn-yard; his pasture and pig-pen; face drainage is imperfect-the rains and melting snows he sets his barn or shop butt against it on one side, and making a ditch of the middle of the road. In such cases his house perhaps a few feet removed, on the other-lining

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