Grammar Grade and

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THOUGHT, AND ITS EXPRESSION.

BY FRED H. HACKETT, AUTHOR OF "PURE ENGLISH," ETC.

HAT, in man's education, can be more desirable than

W purity of verbal expression, Force and beauty of lan

guage are not needed on all occasions, but the attribute always demanded, in even the most commonplace thoughts, is clear. ness. Without it, where are the varied charms of conversation and literature? Considering language as an artificial instrument for the transmission of living thought, and remembering that words, at best, are but the weak signs of ideas, sentiments, and emotions, it remains for us to find the fittest mode for their expression.

"Every word is the sign of an idea," and "Every sentence is the expression of a thought," are familiar precepts; but it should also be remembered that in English, which is not a highly inflected language, like the Latin, words must be arranged systematically, or else they will be of little, if any, service to us in the communication of our thoughts. It is not so with a Latin sentence, which, shuffle the words as we will, admits of one and only one meaning.

While not literally "a grammarless tongue," as Richard Grant White has termed it, English is an analytic language, to whose vocabulary many nations have contributed. The words street, mountain, and cheese come to us from the ancient Romans. Tea is of Chinese origin; tariff, of Arabic; dairy, of Scandinavian; banjo, of African; pool, of Celtic; yacht, of Dutch; Yankee, of Indian; etc. The history of words abounds with curiosities. Buzz and hiss, for example, are symbolic of the sounds uttered by the bee and the serpent. The titles Czar and Kaiser are derived from Cæsar, and July comes from Julius. The political convention that nominated James K. Polk to be President of the United States gave birth to the word outsider. Idiot formerly meant citizen; thief, servant; person, actor; etc.

In old authors, we come across such expressions as, "a brisk lad," "a tight girl," "a proper man," and "a pretty wench." The sense, in which the adjectives brisk, tight, proper, and the noun wench are used, is likely to puzzle a modern reader, unless he has given due attention to the study of philology. "Content you," Abide here till I return," "If it pleasure you," "It will advantage you," "He is ashamed on it," "I've bidden him to dinner," "Wait until I give you notice," "They reckon him honest,' ," "It jumps with my humor," etc., in olden times, were the equivalents of "Be satisfied," "Stay here till I return," "If it please you," "It will benefit you," "He is ashamed of it," "I've invited him to dinner," "Wait until I give you permission," "They think him honest," "It agrees with my humor." These are a few of the many instances that prove our language to be in a state of evolution, gradual yet continual.

A word frequently has several distinct meanings, and the sense of many words varies in a greater or less degree, according to the way in which we use them. Begin and commence are true synonyms, and can, I think, be used interchangeably in any construction; but such words, in English, are comparatively few.

The class, however, of so-called synonyms-words with general resemblances, yet specific differences,-is correspondingly numerous. A prevalent lack of discrimination in their use is detrimental to clearness of expression. Grow, signifying to increase. should not be confounded with become. A dark sky may grow darker, but how can a clear sky grow dark? Partially, implying a bias or prejudice, is not synonymous with partly, meaning in part; and to refer to a case as having been partially heard, when we mean that the hearing has not been concluded, is accordingly an unintentional insult to the

court. Patron is a virtual benefactor; customer a mere purchaser,-yet merchants sometimes think themselves very polite to refer to occasional customers as their patrons. A clear distinction exists also between occur, to happen, and transpire, to come to light. "A caucus occurred last week, but its doings have not yet transpired," is a correct expression; but to say that a sad accident has just transpired is palpably absurd. So, too, we inaugurate a man formally in the office to which he has been elected; but it is far better English to use begin or open in such expressions as "I shall inaugurate a conservative policy," "He will inaugurate the exhibition." Convoke, to call together, is very generally slighted in favor of convene, to come together, consequently the terms are not interchangeable. It is the privilege of the President to convoke Congress, and its duty to convene at the appointed time. Allude is also misused in the sense of refer. Bountiful is erroneously substituted for plentiful; alacrity, for promptness; character, for reputation; raised, for reared; farther, for further; verbal, for oral; etc., etc. It will thus be seen that the study of synonymy is essential to clearness and exactness of expression.

Let us now leave synonyms for the consideration of a miscellaneous class of equally prevalent errors. In the daily news journals, where a literary standard of some sort ought to be maintained for the benefit of people who do not wish to bother themselves with books, the slang of the day and nearly all varieties of grammatical and rhetorical blunders are of regular recurrence. "The curse and peril of language in our day,” as Richard Grant White writes, "and particularly in this country, is that it is at the mercy of men who, instead of being content to use it well, according to their honest ignorance, use it ill, according to their affected knowledge."

Consequently, it has become the custom of writers for the press to call a dandy a dude, a grammar school pupil a scholar, etc. When a girl begins to sell goods in a store, she is a saleslady instead of a plain saleswoman; although, strange as it may seem, girls employed in household duties have not yet won the distinction of houseladies and chamberladies, but remain mere nursegirls and chambermaids. "He committed suicide" is condensed into "He suicided." Why not, by analogy, say "He consumptioned," or "He fevered,' when consumption or fever has caused the death? We are told of the true facts of a celebrated case, but are not enlightened as to the false facts. We learn also that the Governor has received an invite to give the citizens his opinion of the sugar combine; read of boys who have climbed down a chimney; and of girls who were partly educated in Europe." It is quite possible for a boy to climb a chimney; but, since to climb means to ascend, never to descend, how he can climb down is not so clear. And if a girl has traveled all the way to Europe and returned only partly educated, she deserves sympathy; it would have been better for her had she stayed at home. "The kids attend school" and "The boiler has bursted" are even worse, though not exaggerated, instances of the prevalent slang and the bad grammar to be seen in the metropolitan press. An untutored child will naturally say "He drinked it" and "She hurted me," but the melodious strains of Patti will fall flat upon the ear of the man who thinks the participles, in such defective sentences as "I seen him" and "He done it," as euphonious as the past tenses.

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Errors often occur in the use or rather misuse of modifying adjectives and adverbs and their corresponding phrases and clauses. "I only saw John." The adverb only here modities the verb saw, and the supposition is that the speaker or writer merely saw John, but did not speak to him or touch him. If the adverb be placed immediately before the subject I, it becomes an adjective. "Only I saw John," that is to say, he was not seen by anybody else. Using the adjective to modify the object, "I saw only John," it is evident that only one person was seen, and that his name was John. "They were nearly dressed alike." The adverb nearly in this sentence, if intended to modify alike, should be put just before it, thus, "They were dressed nearly alike."

The adjective phrase generally follows the noun or pronoun

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modified by it. A man was digging a well, with a lame leg." The phrase with a lame leg, evidently refers to the noun man, and should accordingly be placed next after it, thus: "A man, with a lame leg, was digging a well." The adverbial phrase, for his own amusement, is ludicrously located in the following sentence: "The verses were written by a man who had long been imprisoned, for his own amusement." It is not likely that his confinement amused him; consequently the phrase should come immediately after the verb were written and should not modify the predicate of the subordinate clause. "We get salt from the sea, which we use to season our meats and vegetables." Since we do not season our food with the sea, the italicized adjective clause is wrongly placed. Following is the best construction: "From the sea, we get salt, which we use to season our meats and vegetables."

Adverbial modifiers, less restricted as to location than adjective modifiers, will still occasionally go astray. "Though some of the European rulers may be females, when spoken of collectively they are properly termed kings." It will be observed that the adverbial clause here indicated is too far from the verb are termed and too near to the verb may be, thus being in an equivocal position. Predicate adjectives and adverbs often confuse us. We should say, "His voice sounds soft," and "She sings sweetly," considering in all such cases the logical relation of the adjective or the adverb to the word to be modified, in the subject or the predicate. Ambiguity is very apt to result from a careless or an ignorant use of the personal pronouns. "He likes me better than you," may mean either "He likes me better than you like me," or "He likes me better than he likes you."

The reason that the study of syntax so often proves to be tedious, in our common schools, is owing mainly to the illogical and unnatural methods followed by teachers. Virtually useless technicalities should be ignored, and the time available devoted to the illustration and practice of the essentials of speech. It will then be comparatively an easy task for students to see that a verb agrees with its subject; that a pronoun agrees with its antecedent; to tell when a noun or pronoun is in the nominative, possessive, or objective case; to comprehend the nature of infinitives and participles; to master the peculiarities of the plurals of nouns; to distinguish between the strong and weak, the transitive and intransitive verbs; to attune their ears to the various moods and tenses: to use intelligently the adjectives, adverbs, articles, conjunctions, and prepositions.

The (a weak form of that-so the text-books say,) is the definite article, and is used with both singular and plural nouns. It is used idiomatically in such expressions as, "It is all the better," "We had all the more trouble." Where there is a reference to distinct things, as in the sentence, "He sent for the secretary and treasurer," the article should be repeated before treasurer, since its omission implies that the two offices are held by one person. "The few who attended were pleased." If we omit the definite article in this expression, and say, "Few who attended were pleased," we make a radical change in the sense.

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A and an (weak forms of one), the so-called indefinite articles. are supposed to be used only with singular nouns, still we may properly say, 'a few houses," "a hundred men," a thousand dollars," etc. When several nouns follow the indefinite article, care is requisite to see that it be in accord with each of them. We must not write of "a dog, cat, owl, and swallow," the correct construction of which is "a dog, cat, an owl, and a swallow." Euphony determines our choice in the use of a and an, the rule being to prefer an before h sounded, when the accent does not fall upon the first syllable; as, "an heroic general," "an historical address." Before hotel," many writers prefer a.

"They were all of a mind" means of one mind, and the use of a in this construction, is clearly idiomatic. "There was an openness and a degree of fair play about the contest." The a and an seem, in this sentence, to bear an unusual significance and are classed by Professor Earle, the philologist, not as indefinite articles, but as demonstrative pronouns.

A skillful use of connectives is characteristic of our greatest writers. Nothing contributes more to force and unity of style. Close attention must be given to the conjunctions, prepositions,

and relatives, if we wish to acquire the habit of using them with ease and accuracy.

The copulative and, the disjunctive or, the adversative but, and the correlatives, not to mention the diminutives, as, so, if, to, in, for, till, etc., often go astray in a sentence, and mar both its sense and its symmetry of structure. Illustrations need not here be cited, since they are as plentiful in literature as the leaves upon the trees. Many conjunctions are used as adverbs and many prepositions are required to do duty as conjunctions. From such expressions as, "We saw that he was pleased," "I am sure that it is true," etc., the connective that is often advantageously omitted. Neither would Shakespeare, were he now alive, use it in " When that the poor have cried." While there are not in the English language a hundred prepositions, still they are of daily recurrence, and their best use demands rare discrimination. At times, the sense of a sentence restricts us to the use of a particular preposition, but in other instances we are permitted a choice. It is well to remember that a noun or pronoun depending upon a preposition is in the objective case; that of generally denotes possession ; in, place; by, nearness or manner; from, change or removal; etc. But, after all, these serviceable particles cannot be defined with any degree of exactness, and their subtle significance can be learned only by observation and practice. A prose sentence should seldom end with a preposition, though in poetry it frequently follows the noun or pronoun it governs, and admits of such expressions as "the fields among," "look the wide world over," etc. Prepositions, besides indicating the relation of nouns and pronouns to other words, in sentences, serve to introduce innumerable phrases and clauses.

When a student has acquired a reputable vocabulary, looked into the history and significance of words, and sufficiently familiarized himself with etymology and syntax, he will find that his linguistic studies have taken him into a sphere of thought far wider than any he has yet explored. Since language is not an exact science, like mathematics, he must now cultivate self-reliance and perfect his own style of expression. His teachers may aid him, now and then, with valuable advice and criticism, but his ultimate success will depend principally upon himself.

Style is characteristic of nations and individuals; it relates to thought, and suggests something more than the mere manner of its expression. "It should be as natural as dress," says Professor Nichol, "and fit the time, the place, and the person, as a glove fits the hand." Dean Swift defines style to be "proper words in proper places," and Count Buffon says, "The style is the man." Its essential attributes are clearness, force, and beauty. Clearness appeals especially to the intellect, force to the emotions, and beauty to the taste.

The proper position of modifying words, phrases, and clauses, and precision in the use of so-called synonyms, are, as we have seen, the vital necessities of clearness. A clear writer will say what he means, and will mean exactly what he says.

Force, a broader term, lies mostly in suggestiveness, variety of construction, and the judicious distribution of emphasis. The forcible writer will hold the reader's attention, yet be concise in his style and specific in his statements.

Beauty, its sounds and sentiments ever in accord, is concerned with the music, the graces and the ornamentation of language. It aims to please the ear, to tickle the fancy, and to stimulate the imagination. It has a wider scope in poetry than in prose.

Clearness of thought implies clearness of expression, and enthusiasm will intensify its force; but the sweet music lurking in apt words and pertinent phrases is evoked only by him whose style possesses the mystic charm of beauty.

The life of a language is in its idioms. A word or phrase bears a special significance contrary to its literal sense; or a sentence peculiarly constructed defies grammatical analysis, yet conforms to the genius of the language. Words and expressions of this class, universally understood and approved by standard authors, are idiomatic. Every tongue has its own idiomatic peculiarities, easily comprehended by natives, but very difficult to foreign students and translators. The Italians call a house with a large door, un palazzo, a palace; the French

say un cheval noir, a horse black, instead of a black horse. In German, Ich bin es, is equivalent in English to It is I, which in French is, C'est moi, it is me. "Comment vous portez-vous, Messieurs Les Horreurs,-comment vous portez-vous?" (How do you do, Horrors,-how do you do?), a French translation of Satan's exclamation, "Hail! horrors, hail!" in Paradise Lost, to an American or an Englishman, seems very ludicrous. It is equaled only by that of the famous foreigner who, while struggling for his life in the water, cried out: "I will drown, and nobody shall help me."

It, in English, may be either the subject or predicate; as, "It rains," "This is it." There is always in the predicate; as, "There is trouble." We change nouns to adjectives, and say either "a watch of gold or "a gold watch." Nouns are also used freely as verbs; as, "to head an army," "to hand a plate," "to eye a foe," "to book a passenger," etc. Is not the idiomatic expression, "She set her cap for him" far better than its slang equivalent "She tried to mash him"? We may tolerate the occasional use of slang colloquially-for at times it is piquant and pertinent,-but generally it is low and vulgar, and seldom if ever rises to the dignity of an idiom. It is to be regretted that the expressive idioms in such constructions as "It winds," "Did you bell?" are no longer in current use, having given way to "It blows" and "Did you ring?" sentences more formal, but less definite.

We still possess a long list of idiomatic words and phrases, whose sweetness and variety are illustrated in the following expressions: "I cannot stomach the insult," "You will catch cold,' "He is beside himself with anger," "Don't put on a long face," "He is out of his head," "She has a sweet tooth," "You write a good hand," "He is at home in mathematics,"

"I act on my own hook," "Put a spoke in his wheel," "You are always in hot water," "Face the music," "I've a fit of the blues," "You are under a cloud," "I shall turn over a new leaf," "We will not split hairs about it," "You must turn the tables on him," "He has cut his eye teeth," "I tried to scrape an acquaintance with her," "You cannot curry favor with me," ""He has gone to his long home," etc., etc.

A word in reputable use to-day may be obsolete to-morrow, and slang of the past may be classed with idioms of the present. The establishment in living languages of a fixed standard of verbal accuracy is, consequently, impossible. Still, a systematic study of the history, grammar, and literature of our native tongue, now spoken by upward of 100,000,000 of the earth's inhabitants, is essential to purity of expression, and in this enlightened age there can be no valid excuse for ignorance. Idiomatic English should be studied in our schools, together with grammar and composition. The use of it, there, this, that, these, those, may, can, shall, will, must, ought, should, would, etc., should be illustrated and explained. Let students write more and recite less. Thus, under the guidance of skillful teachers, they will soon learn to see to the syntax of their sentences, to look critically to the position of modifiers, to use their connectives and synonyms with discriminating taste, and to master all the essentials of pure, idiomatic English expression.

The schools can do no more; self-culture must do the rest. The witching charm of style, resulting from a harmonious union of beauty, vividness, and originality, is to many of us impossible of attainment; but in time it will come to the fortunate few endowed by nature with a sensitive ear, a quick imagination, and a sincere love for literature.

CAPITAL STEM

-UPPER TURNS

ANGLE LOWER TURN

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So do I think, though weak we be and small,
Yet there is One whose care is none the less;
Who finds, perchance, some grain of worth in all,
Or loves us for our very humbleness.

-Ina D. Coolbrith.

And oh! when others take our place,
And earth's green curtain hides our face,
Ere on the stage, so silent now,
The last new hero makes his bow;

So may our deeds, recalled once more
In memory's sweet but brief encore,
Down all the circling ages run

With the world's plaudits of "Well done."
--Bret Harte.

Man's books are but man's alphabet.
Beyond and on his lessons lie--
The lessons of the violet,

The large gold letters of the sky;
The love of beauty, blossomed soil,
The large content, the tranquil toil;
The toil that Nature ever taught,
The patient toil, the constant stir,

The toil of seas where shores are wrought;
The toil of Christ the carpenter;
The toil of God incessantly,

By palm-set lands or frozen seas.

Our faults no tenderness should ask--
The chastening stripes must cleanse them all;
But for our blindness--oh! in shame,
Before the eyes of heaven we fall--
Earth bears no balsam for mistakes.

--E. R. Sill.

The world's not all wisdom, nor poems, nor flowers, But each day has the same good twenty-four hoursThe same light, the same night, for you Jacobs in

tears;

They see the Rachels at the end of the years;
There is waving of wheat, and the tall, strong corn,
And his heart's blood is water that sitteth forlorn.
-John Vance Cheney.

A rough road to the stars! Some day
How short will seem the traveled way;
How loud will swell the victor's song-
Press on, O heart! Be brave, be strong!

-Clarence Urmy.

Lay not up treasures for yourselves
On earth, and stint and starve the soul,
By heaping granaries and shelves

And high stone houses,- for the whole

Of wealth is this: to grow, and grow, and grow In faith; to know and ever seek to know.

--Joaquin Miller.

For surer than the sun

That melts the clouds, and mikes the bud to swell, Is God, all-loving one,

Who knows my needs and doeth all things well.
-Charles A. Murdock.

He never sees his arrow's flight
Who's always looking at his feet.

--Madge Morris Wagner.

There is nothing lost that 's lost, and naught
That once has lived has lived amiss.
Nay, smile not ye, nor count that false
Which failed in promises it gave;
For gold is gold though it go down
A thousand fathoms in the wave;
And brighter hued the blossom is,
That blooms upon a grave.

-Madge Morris Wagner.