9. The sustainer for the thing sustained. Altar is put for the sacrifice laid on it; field, for the battle upon it, as, well-fought field; "the mace (magistrate) comes." 10. Materials for the things made out of them; as, Hemp for rope; cold steel for su ord; lead for bullet. 11. The thing signified for the sign; as, " &c. When pointing to a portrait, we say, "That is Webster, or "" Clay," LESSON CV. THE SYNECDOCHE (OR COMPREHENSION). This is a form of speech, wherein something more or something less is substituted for the precise object meant ; as when the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; the singular for the plural, or the plural for the singular, &c. 1. The whole for a part. "The world considers him a man of talent," i. e, that part of mankind who knew him; "It is written in the prophets," i. e., in the book of some one of the prophets; "There lies Washington," i. the body of Washington; "They have taken away my Lord," i. e., his body. 2. A part for the whole. e., "Give us this day our daily bread, i. e., various kinds of food necessary for the support of life; "mortals," or "souls," are put for men; "sail," for the entire ship; "head," for person; 66 waves," for the sea; 66 a good soul," 'a merry soul," for a good and a merry person; "the keys of the fort were given up," i. e., the fort was given up; "the Lord Chancellor resigned the seals," i. e., every thing connected with the office of Chancellor. 9966 3. The genus for a species. As when we call a dull man a stupid animal. 4. A species for the genus. We thus speak of a "garrison put to the sword," i. e., killed by all the various species of weapons employed; or we say a man may get his bread by industry, that is, get the necessaries of life, bread being only one species of this genus. 5. The singular number used for the plural; or, the plural for the singular. "Man that is born of woman," i. e., men that are born of women; "The thieves that were crucified with him upbraided him," i. e., one of the thieves upbraided him. Sometimes a collective word, by this figure, expresses multitudes more clearly than a noun in the plural would; as, "The theatre burst into tears," i. e., the persons in the theatre, &c. We speak of "head of cattle." This mode of speaking, in which the noun does not take the plural forın, though plurality is intended, is used of beasts only, or of men in contempt; as when Pope says, "A hundred head of Aristotle's friends," where a twofold contempt is expressed: first, that the commentators on Aristotle were as dull as oxen or cattle; and, secondly, that as individuals they had so little character that they deserved to be reckoned by the dozen only, or the hundred. This is a branch of Metonymy, and is a figure by which Proper Names are used for Common, or Common for Proper. 1. The Proper for the Common : 66 As when the name of a person or of a nation is given to a man, to express his being endowed with qualities or manners similar to those referred to: thus we say, "Solomon," for a wise man; "Aristides," for a just man; "Job," for a patient man; "Hercules," or "Sampson," for a strong man; "Judas," for a traitor; "Demosthenes," or Cicero," or Canning," or "Webster," for an orator; "Horace," or "Virgil," or "Milton," 66 Shakspeare," ," for a poet; "Croesus," for a rich man; "Mecenas," for a patron of learning; "Nero," or "Herod," for a cruel man; "Heliogabalus," for a glutton; "Messalina," or "Aspasia," for a courtesan. or So, if a man is stout and warlike, he is, by this figure, said to a Hector;" if aged, "a Nestor;" if wise " a Solon;" if witty, be" 66 "an Athenian;" if dull, "a Boeotian;" if cynical or censorious, "a Diogenes;" if merry, "a Democritus;" if handsome, an Adonis;" if self-admiring, "an Adonis;" if newly married, "a Benedick" (from one of the characters in the play "Much Ado about Nothing"); if abstinent and chaste, "a Joseph;" if a lady's maid, "an Abigail." 2. The Common for the Proper: When the name of the art or science in which a person excelled is put for the person himself; as, "the Roman orator," for Cicero; "the Roman poet," for Virgil. By this figure, God is called "the Omnipotent," "the Almighty," ," "the Eternal," &c.; Christ, "the great Teacher," the Saviour," &c.; St. Paul, "the great Apostle;" Aristotle, "the Stagyrite," or "Peripatetic;" Anacreon, "the Bard of Teos;" Shakspeare," the Bard of Avon," "the poet of Nature;" Tacitus, "the prince of historians;" a king, "his Majesty;" a prince, "his Highness;" the pope, "his Holiness ;" an ambassador, "his Excellency;" persons of the rank of nobles, "his Grace," ""his Lordship;" a certain and undoubted truth, "Gospel;" Gibbon, "the historian of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." This last writer abounds in Antonomasia: Rome is "the country of the Cæsars;" Constantinople, "the Imperial City;" Constantine, "the Protector of the Church." Some caution is to be employed in the use of this figure; the too frequent use of it savors of affectation, or of an ostentatious show of learning. It is also to be considered and ascertained, before we use it, whether our readers are acquainted with the person or thing alluded to; for if not, we shall eitl er not be understood, or be misunderstood. LESSON CVII. THE IRONY. This is a form of speech, or words, in which the meaning is directly contrary to the literal signification of the words. employed, not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our remarks: as when we call a silly person 66 a Solomon ;" or a rogue, an honest man;" or an unchaste woman, a Penelope;" or when we say a thing is "well done," when it is badly done. By this figure, Verres, who was detestable for rapacity and cruelty, is called by Cicero "the upright and honest prætor of Sicily;" and Clodius, the murderer of an illustrious Roman, is represented by Cicero as "worthy of being acquitted for the integrity of his life, the simplicity of his manners, and the virtues of his character." Irony has been called an elocutionary figure, as the proper utterance or tone of voice is required to make it fully understood, and to give it a sting; e. g., Job, xii. 2, “No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you!" This figure is singularly adapted to the reproving of vice and folly, by rendering them ridiculous. Thus: "Although I would have you instil early into your children's breasts the love of cruelty, yet by no means call it by its true name, but encourage them in it under the name of fun." The Hebrew prophet Elijah (1 Kings xxii.) used this weapon in exposing the folly and absurdity of idolatrous worship and reliance: "Cry aloud, for he is a god; either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked." Solomon uses powerful irony (Eccles. xi. 9): Rejoice, O young man," &c. Irony is often conveyed, with peculiar power, in the form of an Eclamation; as when Cicero derides his accuser Balbus, by exclaiming: "O excellent interpreter of the law! master of antiquity! corrector and amender of our constitution !" Sarcasm is an embittered sort of irony-the result of intense hatred and scorn, the verbal expression of which, however, is softened, that it may not violate the proprieties of refined society. Archbishop Whately, in conversation with a friend who said of certain Irish orators, "They have a great command of language," made the sarcastic reply: "You mistake, sir, language has a great command of them." The brethren of Joseph employed this figure when they said of him, “Behold, the dreamer cometh." This figure is generally used when a dead or dying person is insulted with scoffs, as that of the Jews when our Saviour was agonizing on the Cross: "He saved others; himself he cannot save;” “Hail, King of the Jews!" or the scoff of Tomyris over the corpse of Cyrus, whose head she caused to be cut off and thrown into a bowl of blood, saying, at the same time, “Take now thy fill of blood, which thou hast always thirsted after.” Isaial represents the dead in Hades accosting the King of Babylon in this sarcastic manner: "Is this the man who made the earth to tremble? Art thou also become weak as we? Art thou become like unto us?" The Israelites, when pursued by Pharaoh, in their terror and indignation, said to Moses: "Because there were no graves in Egypt, hast thou taken us away to die in the wilderness?" Another specimen, too long to be quoted here, may be found in Byron's "Childe Harold," canto iv., 33-41. Mimesis is a sarcasm in the form of mimicry, an example of which is contained in Hotspur's description of a fop, in “Henry IV.," and in Mercutio's early conversations in "Romeo and Juliet." LESSON CVIII. THE EUPHEMISM, LITOTES, AND COMMUNICATION. The Euphemism is a verbal figure, by which an inoffensive word or expression is used to convey a disagreeable fact. The words "deceased” and “departed" are thus used instead of "dead" and "died;" "stopping payment," instead of "becoming bankrupt;" "perishing on the scaffold," instead of being hanged; "slept with his fathers," instead of being buried with them; "falling asleep," instead of "dying." A face bloated by intemperance is thus delicately described by Akenside: "I see Anacreon laugh and sing; |