carried Koos's engineering studies further, indicate that an upper secondary unit of the type proposed can make a real contribution. Koos listed 104 so-called engineering occupations and asked 100 deans of schools of engineering to designate which occupations were professional in character, requiring four years of college work, which were semiprofessional, requiring probably only 2 years of collegiate work, and which were on a trade level, requiring no collegiate work. In spite of much variation in opinion, approximately 50 per cent of the deans agreed that 43 of the 104 occupations belonged on the semiprofessional level, and 32 on the professional level.

More Semiprofessional than Professional Occupations

the

Thomas explains his investigation as follows: "In order to determine how the workers in engineering occupations were distributed among these groups, writer undertook in 1926 an inquiry among large corporations in California which employed trained engineers. The two groups of occupations, segregated in accordance with the findings of Koos, were listed but with no suggestion that the first 43 of these were classified as semiprofessional and the remaining 32 as professional. These lists were sent to the employment managers of the 12 corporations carrying on the most extensive engineering projects in the State. Each was requested to indicate the number of men employed by his organization in each occupation listed. The replies in every case were prompt and carefully prepared. These showed 755 men employed in semiprofessional work, and 289 employed in fully professional engineering work."

Moreover, even the existence of numerous schools and colleges of business, commerce, engineering, etc., operated for private gain is sufficient evidence that a large field of education is inadequately served by the present public school system.

Small Population Centers May Have Colleges Combining the two upper high school years with the two lower division college years should afford a large enough body of students to justify colleges in centers of population insufficient in size to maintain a 4-year liberal arts college or even a 2-year junior college. Of course we are still in the midst of a controversy between the college administrators regarding how many persons should go to college. Only two years ago Chancellor Lindley, of the University of Kansas, insisted that "in a democracy the chief duty of a college is to train for useful and intelligent citizenship the largest possible number of young men and women." If we approve this stand, we should note that college surveys, especially of the publicly supported colleges and universities, that have given

any consideration to the matter of students' residence are in agreement that a high correlation exists between attendance at college and the nearness of residence to the college.

College Students Drawn from Neighboring Territory

In the Texas educational survey, for example, where the survey staff divided the State into five groups of counties, the first fifth having the fewest college students per thousand population and ranging to the last fifth having the most students per thousand population, it was shown that the counties which have the least access to the State schools have the lowest percentage of college students per unit of population.

Studying the student population in 21 land-grant colleges scattered all over the United States from Rhode Island to Oregon, and from Michigan to Florida, Doctor Klein of the United States Bureau of Education in a study not yet published, finds that of a grand total of 63,177 students

One of the serious problems of articulation between college and high school to-day is found in the duplication of courses. This overlapping can more readily be eliminated in a 4-year upper secondary unit than in the 2-year junior college or in the 4-year arts college. College men have been working on this problem ever since 1913, when President Angell of Yale justified the college in offering certain work of secondary grade in order that a student who had not obtained it in his high-school course might take it in college, but questioned the policy whereby the student "when once he is safely inside the college walls, finds himself set to doing right over again much which he has already done in school."

Doctor Koos studied the problem in 1922 from several points of view. First, he examined certain subject offerings in 86 colleges and 250 high schools. The

courses were classified as secondary, partly secondary, and collegiate. His findings were that, on the average, the freshman and sophomore offerings of the 86 colleges were to be classified 20 per cent as secondary, 25 per cent as partly secondary, and 55 per cent as collegiate.

Again, 200 students in the University of Minnesota enrolled in the freshman and sophomore years in the College of Science, Literature, and Arts, were asked to estimate the duplication of their highschool work in the various college subjects. The range of overlapping was found to vary from less than 1 per cent in occupational subjects, ancient languages, and mathematics, to 36 per cent in English. But an estimated average of 15 per cent duplication for all subjects was found to exist in the experiences of these 200 students.

Some Objections Have Been Urged

I think I should mention some of the objections that have been made to this 4-4 type of organization and some of the dangers or pitfalls that may be encountered in it.

An argument against the 6-4-4 plan is that the development of these colleges in great numbers will draw too heavily from well-established private and endowed institutions which are now doing good work. Dr. George H. Palmer of Harvard expressed this opinion in an article in Atlantic Monthly in April, 1927. Although there is some danger of this happening especially in the newer sections of the Nation, I believe no serious menace exists.

Reorganize Some Colleges on Continental Plan

The college population of the country has been increasing by leaps and bounds and it is a matter of common knowledge that all of the best private institutions have been compelled to put on rigid entrance requirements. The applicants for admission are far more than they can accept And there will always be many parents who will desire for their children four years of liberal arts instruction prior to entrance upon professional schools and who will have the economic resources to give their children this additional education. To their needs the 4-year arts college will continue to minister. It is probably advisable for some of the present 4-year endowed colleges to reorganize in a way to perform primarily the functions of a continental university. When this is done the present upper division or senior college must undergo some fundamental changes. With this problem, however, this paper is not immediately concerned.

It is said that there is danger that local ambitions will lead to the creation of colleges of the new type where the

economic resources cf the community are insufficient and the burden on the taxpayers will be too heavy. This, to be sure, must be carefully safeguarded by laws establishing minimum pupil enrollment and minimum assessed valuation for aleas planning establishment of junior college districts. It may also be well for school research workers to establish the percentages of public funds which should be devoted to elementary and secondary and collegiate schooling in order that community civic pride" may not abet a college in robbing the schools of lower rank of their just share of funds.

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Precaution must be taken, too, lest the local college prematurely develops ambitions to do senior college work. I believe, however, that this is more likely to occur where the separate 2-year junior college exists. In his preliminary survey of secondary education in California, Koos discovered enough evidence of this tendency to lead him to sound a note of warning.

Liberal Arts Curriculum May be Dup icaled

It is argued that the curriculum will be merely a duplication of the present liberal arts college curriculum. If this is a real danger it can be overcome by educational statesmanship on the part of those who administer the new schools. But if the liberal arts college curriculum is good for those who attend the 4-year colleges are we not justified in duplicating it in part for the benefit of students who must study near their own homes?

It is claimed, also, that the period of school life is not shortened by the new type of organization. Doctor Judd and his associates on the Commission on the Length of Elementary Education have made out a strong case for the shortening of the precollege period of education. I have already shown that able students can easily save two years of time in the 4-4 organization. A still larger number can save one year. It has also been shown that the present overlapping between high school and college is more readily eliminated through the new type of organization than it is through the older type.

Enrichment Sometimes Better than Shortening

I contend, however, that for a great many students in communities where the employment opportunities for young people are not plentiful and the average economic well-being of families is high the curriculum should be enriched rather than the school period shortened. For them this argument will not apply and if in time a degree is offered at the end of the upper 4-year unit, many students of inferior ability now struggling with senior college work for the sake of a degree will end their formal schooling with the junior college.

It is feared that the "amateur scholar" will disappear from American life. This argument also is advanced by Dr. George H. Palmer in the Atlantic Monthly article that I have quoted. As I have pointed out, 4-year liberal arts colleges are in little danger from the new institution. In return for whatever loss Doctor Palmer foresees we should have a larger percentage of our population possessors of two years more of liberal arts training than they now get.

Need of Reorganization Generally Recognized

It is generally agreed that our secondary school system needs reorganization. American life has changed significantly in the past half century. Immigration from Europe has brought new racial elements into the country; free western land is exhausted and it is no longer a possible outlet for those who fail in business; manufacturing processes have been profoundly changed by the development of machinery and the application of steam and electric power; concentration of control of industry in the hands of a relatively few managing corporations has practically been accomplished; widespread ownership of stocks and bonds of big industrial and business concerns has made "capitalists" of an ever-increasing percentage of our population; wages have increased and better standards of living have resulted, especially in the ranks of skilled labor; the movement of population from country to city has set in, increasing the population of many large cities at an astounding rate; and last but not least significant, the character of the home has seriously changed as a result of the urbanization of population

and the widespread employment of women in industry and business.

Social Changes Produce New Types Heretofore, important changes in society have resulted in new types of secondary schools. The present 4-year

high school, for instance, resulted from changes in social conditions. Comment ing on its development and the reasons therefor, E. P. Cubberley, in his Public Education in the United States, says: "As the colonial Latin grammar school had represented the educational needs of a society based on classes, and the academies had represented a transition period and marked the growth of a middle class, so the rising democracy of the second quarter of the nineteenth century now demanded and obtained the democratic high school, supported by the public and equally open to all, to meet the educational needs of a new society built on the basis of a new and aggressive democracy."

Although changes have occurred in the curricula of the high school, none is

From less than 4 per cent of the eligible age group enrolled in public high schools in 1890 the percentage has risen to nearly 47 per cent in 1926. Not more than 8 to 10 per cent of a given generation is required to fill all professional needs and all posts of directive and managerial types in business and industry. We must assume, therefore, that unless new types of schools are developed, the secondary school is unlikely to meet the real needs of all the pupils now demanding service of it.

One Sixth Have Been Reorganized

Experiments in the reorganization of the high school are going on all over the Nation and especially in the large cities and in those States where the average economic well-being is high. The Seventh Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence records the fact that approximately 16 per cent of all the public high schools in the United States in 1926 could be classed as "reorganized high schools." Seventy-two per cent of the cities of 100,000 population and more had reorganized their secondary schools by establishing junior high schools, and 61 per cent of the cities of population between 30,000 and 100,000 had taken similar action. The most common characteristic of "reorganized high schools" is a junior high school embracing usually the first three years of the secondary school period.

Simultaneously with the establishment of these junior high schools, however, has come an upward extension of the secondary school by the addition of "junior colleges." The studies of Koos and Whitney show that in the year 1921-22 there were 189 junior colleges, public and private, in the United States enrolling 16,121 (Continued on page 193)