detached, experimental attitude toward children has been difficult to obtain. Furthermore, many people have been and still are somewhat dubious of experiments with children, for they misunder

will get for him objects which he could not otherwise obtain. A mother often reports that she has tried many ways of eliminating temper tantrums-coaxing, reward, punishment-but despite her

Right selection of equipment encourages social cooperation

stand the term and think of it in the light of possible harm. The center recognizes the need of cooperation of laymen in developing objective experimental procedures and has enlisted the aid of parents.

For a long time it was thought that children are born with mental predispo siticns, certain tendencies which determine the future of the child regardless of his experiences during early life. But it has been amply shown that the child at birth possesses little more than the capacity for physical development and intellectual growth. All of his characteristics develop as a result of training and experience. The first few years of life are extremely important, because it is during this time that the fundamentals of the child's personality are established. It is therefore necessary that training during the first few years of life be such that desirable personality traits develop. But methods of training must first be investigated by studying the various factors which determine a child's growth. Since personality is dependent upon environmental influences, the various factors in the environment must be analyzed before changes are instituted. Such investigations are extremely important, and the center is now devoting considerable time in analyzing various factors which influence a child's development.

Children Learn Tantrums Not Profitable Emotional disturbances, such as temper tantrums and irritability, are not the result of inherent nervous weakness but of the method which a child adopts in attaining his desires. In other words, a child who uses temper tantrums to reach a goal has learned that this method

efforts the tantrums continue with greater frequency and intensity. In the treatment of temper tantrums at the

nursery school the child is shown that his goal may be attained more quickly in other ways. If he persists in his tantrums, he is left entirely alone and soon learns that they are not profitable.

Probably the most important traits a child must learn are independence and social adaptability. He must rely upon himself and react to others without interfering with their rights. The routine of the center is arranged so that every child meets situations in which these traits can develop. During the lunch hour, for example, each child is responsible on certain days for the proper setting of the table; he must see that all children at the table are served. At home many parents help the child in his ordinary activities to such an extent that he is not able to learn to take care of himself. It is profitable to give a child definite chores and duties which stimulate and interest him. Children as young as 4 or 5 may be extremely useful in the home by taking care of themselves, thus allowing other members of the family more time for other things. Most mothers have little time for anything but the actual care of their children. As a result they do not allow them the proper exercise of their activities.

Growth is partially dependent upon proper stimulation and practice. Although it is generally accepted that the capacity for intellectual development is determined at birth recent experiments have shown that this inherent capacity fails to develop fully under poor environmental conditions. For example, dependent children placed in an improved environment develop intellectually at a greater rate than when left in an unsuitable environment. Furthermore, the earlier a child is placed in a good environment the greater is his increase of intelligence. Proper Environment Necessary to Development The development of children is favorably influenced by their social contacts outside their home. Social usefulness and productiveness are dependent upon the ability to adjust to new situations. When a child lives continually at home his reactions are restricted because he is meeting similar situations daily. Attendance at a nursery school allows him to learn gradually to adjust to new and interesting situations, many of which he will meet later in life.

Many personality characteristics are well established by the age of 2. These may be undesirable as well as desirable traits. By recognizing undesirable traits and changing the environment and the child's attitudes toward his behavior it is possible so to alter his personality that desirable traits are substituted for the undesirable. In this way the personality of the child not only is reestablished to better advantage but he is also given an opportunity to develop habits which will aid him in the establishment of more useful ones later on. Thus the nursery school places a great deal of emphasis upon the development of the personality of 2-yearolds, whereas little attention is ordinarily paid to this phase of development.

Each Child Studied Periodically

The personality of each child is studied on entrance and periodically later on. Three or four children are assigned to a member of the staff who is responsible for their progress. Weekly staff meetings are held at which the behavior and development of every child are discussed, and plans outlined for future treatment.

It is undoubtedly true that the personality of children who receive nursery school training develops more favorably than that of children who do not receive such training. One research student for the past year has been experimentally observing a number of children in the nursery school, as well as a number of children not in attendance. The results thus far indicate that desirable personality traits develop at a greater rate in children with nursery school training than in those who have not attended a nursery school and have never taken part in directed group

activity. Apparently a situation which requires group cooperation and the direction of a trained worker helps develop desirable social traits. Personality traits develop by a learning process. Partly by trial and error and partly by direction the child learns to utilize certain characteristics in social groups and to eliminate others. Learning desirable traits and discarding undesirable characteristics are fostered by group competition directed by trained workers.

Intelligence tests are given each child at the time of entrance and periodically throughout the year. Although some experimenters have concluded that attendance at a nursery school does not increase the rate of growth of intelligence others have found that a stimulating environment does increase this growth. Our own results indicate that the children of the nursery school have developed rapidly, possibly due to the constant stimulation which they receive in competitive play with individuals of their own age tending to increase their ingenuity and language ability. The pediatrician is responsible for the physical condition of the children. Each child is examined on entrance and thereafter receives a hygienic examination each morning. If signs of a cold, fever, or any contagious disease are observed the child is immediately sent home and the family physician notified. The weight is recorded every two weeks by the nutritionist who regulates the amount of food intake of each child.

Nutritional Condition is Carefully Measured

Dietary records on form cards are made during the lunch period describing the manner of eating and type and amount of food eaten.

On occasions a careful summary of the food intake is kept by the mother so that the nutritionist may have a better understanding of the child's nutritional condition. The nutritional condition of the children at the nursery school as measured by muscle tone, height, and weight is above that of children of the same age in the general population.

Cooperation of various specialists in outlining the program for each child has been found helpful because of the many factors influencing the development of undesirable habits. For example, in cases of poor nutrition, often accompanied by increased irritability, the nutritionist and pediatrician study the problem and institute changes to improve the child's physical and nutritional condition.

In general the program for the children is planned so that their physical and nutritional condition, their intellectual growth and personality may develop to the fullest extent. Conditions are provided which aid them to develop ingenuity and spontaneity and increase their independence and ability to solve problems.

The aim of the work with pro lem children is twofold, namely, service and research. Problem children below 10 years of age are accepted for diagnosis and study. They are referred to the center by many agencies and individuals, the public schools, hospital dispensaries and social service agencies, physicians, and psychologists.

Children who are likely to furnish material for special studies and for demonstration to classes in child behavior are accepted for 3-month periods. By enrolling these problem cases on a three months' basis it is possible to study each child carefully and to investigate the home conditions and the various environmental influences which the child meets. Thus the parents become integral members of the center and furnish valuable data. After an initial examination the child is asked to return at stated intervals whose frequency depends upon the type and severity of the problem. If necessary, the children stay at the center for several hours when continuous observation is desirable.

Detailed History of Development and Behavior The examination of these children includes physical, psychological, and psychiatric investigation in addition to a study of dietary habits and nutritional condition. A detailed history of the development and behavior of each child is obtained and instructions are given to the parents for their observation of the child in a systematic manner. In this way it is possible to determine various factors otherwise often overlooked which influence behavior. When necessary a school history is obtained, and in all cases the principal or teacher is given a résumé of our findings and is requested to cooperate in the subsequent treatment.

A study of the behavior of parents is made in every case examined at the center. Fifty-seven problem children were studied during 1928, and in many cases it was found that the parents were the direct cause of the problem. Misinformation of parents was a particularly frequent cause of unsatisfactory training methods. Many children, for example, are misinformed by their parents regarding sex and religion, since parents are often hesitant about these subjects and do not allow their discussion.

Experiments at the center have shown that the development of the emotions is greatly influenced by training, and that heredity does not determine their development. The stimulating conditions which newborn infants meet determine their emotional reactions. Emotions develop by a process of learning similar to the learning of any habit. Although definite emotions can not be recognized until a child learns the use of language and comes in contact with other children and adults socially, the manner in which

he reacts to environmental stimuli even before he is a year old determines the way he will react emotionally later on. Thus every emotional disturbance can be traced to environmental conditions. This knowledge has been a great aid in the treatment of problem cases.

It is important to deal with the problems of children at an early age not only in order to eliminate these problems but also to develop characteristics which will obviate more serious difficulties later on. Most of the problems of adolescents and adults have their origin in experiences of early life; treatment, to be effective in preventing these problems, must be begun early.

A course in child development is offered in two sections, one for graduate students and one for undergraduates. The subject matter includes a review of the physiological, psychological, and psychiatric concepts of child development. In addition to regular class work clinical demonstrations of problem cases are given twice a week. Students in the department of psychology and education at the George Washington University and the University of Maryland make up most of this class. At present only 65 students can be accommodated, although considerably more than this number applied for registration.

Laboratory Course in Home Economics

A laboratory course is offered to students in home economics, small groups of from three to seven observing the activities of children in the nursery school. Most of these students are from the department of home economics education of the University of Maryland.

Individual conferences are held with parents of children who attend either the nursery school or the consultation section. In addition, parents of the nursery-school children meet at intervals to discuss problems common to most of them. During the spring of 1928 seven lecture conferences were held at which an average of 40 parents attended. These lectures were given by Dr. Louise Stanley, Chief of the United States Bureau of Home Economics; Dr. Grover Kempf, surgeon, United States Public Health Service; Christine Heinig and Dr. Mandel Sherman of the staff of the center. At the beginning of 1929 these lectures were discontinued and seminar meetings were arranged instead. At these meetings one or two parents review experimental literature on problems of childhood, after which a general discussion takes place.

Fathers Attend Seminar Meetings

It is encouraging that between 40 and 50 per cent of the attendance is made up of fathers. It is not yet possible to reach any definite conclusion regarding the influence of the parent education program

on the development of the children, although it has been generally observed that the changing attitudes of the parents have been beneficial, and have aided the workers at the center in dealing with home problems.

Regular study courses for mothers have been offered since the fall of 1928. These classes are conducted once a week, one by Miss Nell Boyd Taylor and one by Dr. Lois Hayden Meek, of the American Association of University Women.

Several studies are under way by members of the staff and research students. Some of these studies are conducted as part of the routine work of the center and others are special investigations.

Flat Feet Related to Posture

The relation between flat feet and posture and the effect of corrective training in developing the musculature and posture of young children are being studied by Dr. John C. Eckhardt and Christine Heinig. The degree of flat-footedness is measured by the footprint method-a series of footprints is made by allowing the child to walk over a lampblack surface onto newsprint paper. One group of children with poor footprints is given special training, while another group is allowed to continue in the ordinary way. It may thus be possible to determine the best method of training children with physical and postural defects.

The relation between nursery school training and changes in egocentricity is being studied by one of the fellows, Lucille Ezekiel. A group of children ranging from 2 to 3 years of age is studied to determine to what extent they show egocentric behavior and the effect of such behavior upon their social adjustment. It is generally assumed that egocentricity is modified by social contacts with other children.

Phantasies Studied by Dictograph Method

The types of spoken phantasies shown by children below 6 years of age and their relationship to conflicts is being investigated by dictograph method by Rita O'Grady, a research student. Systematic phantasies manifest themselves by frequent recurrence in almost identical form, and are closely related to conflicts. Casual phantasies are aroused by stimuli present at the moment and are unrelated to any definite conflict. Children with phantasies of this type are easily diverted from their phantasies and quickly return to active play.

A preliminary experiment on the relation between activity and appetite is under way by Helen Nebeker, the nutritionist. A child who exercises a great deal needs more food to keep up his weight than one who does not. Are we, therefore, justified in urging a child with a poor appetite to increase his activity on the assumption that it will increase his appetite? Thus

far the results indicate that appetite is not related to degree of activity.

The relation between food intake at lunch and afternoon sleep is also being studied. Sleep is judged from kymograph records indicating the depth of sleep and from time records kept by the teachers.

The character and duration of the afternoon sleep of young children is under investigation by Dr. Mandel Sherman. This study was designed to determine the relation between degree of activity during indoor and outdoor play and the character and duration of afternoon sleep, and the relation between duration of the waking period before sleep and the length of the afternoon sleep. The character and duration of sleep are recorded by an apparatus attached to the head of the bed which connects with the arm of a tambour that moves on a smoked kymograph. A timer is also attached to the kymograph so that 30-second intervals are recorded.

It has been found that the activity of the child during play does not determine the character or duration of the afternoon sleep. There is some indication that the less active the child during morning play the less restless and the longer is the afternoon sleep.

No Emotional Responses in Newborn Infants

The development of emotional responses of infants and young children is studied by Dr. Mandel Sherman. The subjects are newborn infants and children ranging in age from several hours to two and a half years. It has been shown that the newborn infant displays no distinct emotions. Any sudden stimulus of sufficient intensity arouses chaotic and aimless responses which become more definite as the child grows older, particularly after he has begun to make social contacts and begins to express himself by language.

The relation between nursery-school training and the development of personality is studied by Elizabeth Walsh, a research student. All of the children in the nursery school were examined upon entrance and have been given several reexaminations. In addition a control group with no nursery-school training is being tested. The results thus far indicate that nursery-school training definitely develops desirable social personality traits in young children.

The center has been working closely with other institutions interested in children. In addition to the many agencies which refer children to the center, institutions caring for children have availed themselves of our consultation service. The center is also open to anyone wishing to carry on research with young children. The cooperation of governmental and private agencies has stimulated varied investigations which when correlated furnish valuable data concerning the child.

of the communities they sought to serve through the church. The earliest elementary schools were those which were of the home and had the immediate supervision and cooperation not only of the common assembly but of the home itself. Modern education seems to have swung far from this conception and one of the most encouraging aspects of the recent trend in the field of education has been the inception and development of parental cooperation. This has taken the form of the organization of the Parent-Teacher Associations.

The growth of the movement has been phenomenal and its value is attested by a clearer conception of the objective of education on the part of the parent, and an increased understanding of student problems and their social background on the part of the teacher and school authorities. The parent is coming to have a better understanding concerning the modern educational movements, and the teacher a better understanding of the problem of the modern home and its rapidly changing social background.

Until recently parent-teacher activities were confined to grade and high-school work. There is now being developed a college parent-teacher association which extends this fine type of cooperation into the field of higher education.

Vital Part of Educational System College authorities have welcomed this incursion into their territory. In many instances they have gone so far as to include in the teacher-training courses offered some study of the work of parentteacher associations. Many graduate students are using the parent-teacher motif as the subject of research leading to advanced degrees. The parent-teacher movement has come to be recognized as a vital part of the educational system.

The college and university cooperative movement has two distinct aspects, the service phase, which was first emphasized, and the phase of education for parenthood. The latter is perhaps the more important and far reaching, for after all, the intelli

Publication sponsored by National Congress of Parents and Teachers, represented by Mrs. S. M. N. Marrs and Mrs. Laura Underhill Kohn.

of the educational program. Upon it depends the future well-being of our race. Modern society allows no place for the conception of a child as property to be dealt with as such. It is this attitude that has been responsible for many misfits and failures in life. The efforts of parents to compel their sons to be something that they want them to be, rather than what the sons themselves are fit for or ought to be, constitutes the cause of failure— and of mishavior-in college, in more instances than ordinarily is thought to be the case.

College Gates not the Only Avenue

The social viewpoint that it is the thing to send a child to college is passing, for no young man or woman ought to enter the gates of a college unless the four years he spends there will mean more to him than four years spent anywhere else. Parents should recognize that there are many other avenues through which to approach life's responsibilities than the gates of a college or a university. In many instances the young man or woman

is placed upon the list of the preferred school long before the parent has any idea of whether that particular school will mean most in the development of the life of the

child.

The parent of to-day must of necessity look upon the young person as a personality, an individual, who has come into his life that he might be helped to develop in his natural bent. To coerce the youth into any particular mold without regard to his capability and preferences is no longer regarded as wise or productive of the results needed in society. The need of modern society is for a well disciplined person who volitionally fits himself into the demands of the day. This is a creative person and not a molded one. In the scheme of exact and strenuous com

petition such a plan is necessary.

Recognizing that many of the parents are deeply interested in these principles, a number of the institutions of higher learning throughout the country are establishing courses for parental education and for knowledge of the parentteacher movement that parents may rightly inform themselves as to how to

serve best the educational forces of the community. Columbia University was the first to introduce a course in the educational aspects of the parent-teacher movement. The University of Georgia for the past five years has given such a course in its summer session. This year

the George Washington University introduces such courses into its regular curricula. Each year the number of institutions offering such courses has increased until in the current year 18 colleges and universities are offering credit courses and 7 are offering noncredit courses in these fields.

Aid the Solution of Student Problems

The service phase of the parent-teacher college cooperative movement concerns itself with aiding in the solution of student problems. Parent-teacher associations in colleges attempt to serve through developing a spirit of understanding of social problems, an attitude of hospitality on the part of the community, and a fine spirit of partnership of the members of the community, students, and the university authorities. This is at once appreciated by the three cooperating groups. Through well-planned programs and activities the associations have become a means of communication between the college authorities and the public, furnishing many helps to the student body, such as scholarships, financial aid, good living quarters, attention in illness and contacts with the home life of the community.

The programs of a college parentteacher association are built upon the interest of the members in college life and in problems confronting young people of college age. It is interesting to

note that wherever such associations have been formed, more important than the monthly programs are the activities of the association in looking after the welfare of the students. The college parentteacher association movement originated with the establishment of the Mothers' Club of Stanford University and it would be unfair for me to pass over this movement without mentioning the name of Mrs. J. W. Bingham who more recently has been the national chairman of the college section of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. The movement has been largely developed in western institutions until at the present time there are about 30 well-organized groups.

Theirs is a Wide Field of Usefulness

An account of the activities during the year of a typical group may serve to illustrate its wide field of usefulness. Monthly meetings were held with speeches on some subject regarding the college affairs. Social meetings were held from time to time for the purpose of raising funds for

scholarships and financial aid, and for helping students who need assistance in various ways. The club gave one scholarship of $300 and administered a loan fund of $75. The housing committee inspected all rooms listed for rental to students, rejecting all that did not come up to certain standards, and thus helped the University authorities in one of their most difficult problems, housing students. Sick students were visited at the hospital and supplied with reading matter and other comforts. Convalescent students were cared for in private homes. At Thanksgiving and Christmas all freshmen not otherwise provided for received invitations to dinner in private homes.

Every opportunity was taken to make foreign students feel at home. Suitable work was provided for students working their way through college. Certain students were provided with articles of furniture for their rooms. The latest project of the club was to establish a convalescent or nursing home for students after they were dismissed from the hospital but before they were well enough to take their places in the dormitories or in the fraternity houses. The club planned to admit those students free who were unable to pay the small fee that would be charged.

We can thus see that the possibilities for service, inherent in the parentteachers' cooperative movement, are varied and numerous. We can see what advantages may accrue when parents and educational institutions cooperate for the development of the personal and social life of the students. The movement as such is just in its beginning and those who are interested in its development are pointing the way to the fulfilling of a vital need and the development of the final cooperative unit in our formal educational program.

Value of Kindergarten and Kindergarten Extension

The value of the training received in the kindergarten and kindergarten extension classes has been a moot question since the establishment of these classes. During the past year I made a study of the age-grade progress reports of the present 4B grade in the schools of these districts [Nos. 43 and 44] with the view to finding out the relative progress of pupils receiving this training and of those not receiving it. My survey showed that the children having had both kindergarten and kindergarten extension training made the best progress, and those having kindergarten training only made better progress than those who entered school in the 1A grade.-Charles E. O'Neill, district superintendent of schools, New York City. 54045-29-2

WE

HAT PART, if any, the Federal Government should take in furthering radio to supplement the regular courses of study in the schools was the topic of a conference called by Ray Lyman Wilbur, Secretary of the Interior, and held in his office May 24, 1929. The conference was attended by representatives of the National Broadcasting Co., and the Columbia Broadcasting System; Chairman Ira E. Robison and Commissioner Harold A. Lafount, of the Federal Radio Commission; Dr. Wm. John Cooper, United States Commissioner of Education; H. Robinson Shipherd, secretary of the Business Training Corporation, New York; Dr. J. W. Crabtree, secretary of the National Education Association; S. D. Shankland, executive secretary of the Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, and others.

Secretary Wilbur, in stating the object of the conference, stressed the importance of radio as a factor in education. "Our public," he said, “is getting more earminded through the radio. An entirely new tool for education has come into being to supplement the work of the school. First used as a toy for entertainment and amusement, it has gradually become a potent influence in the world, for good or evil. The most searching scientific study should be made as to the best way in which the radio can find its place in educa

tion. It should pass out of the toy stage

into community and domestic use."

Doctor Cooper, Commissioner of Education, stated that some effective work in radio is carried out in the schools of Oakland, Calif., and Secretary Wilbur cited the fact that good reactions in civics and government had been obtained from public-school children in Washington, D. C. Many other instances of such instruction were mentioned.

John W. Ellsworth, of the National Broadcasting Co., stated that Walter Damrosch last year gave a series of concerts on Friday mornings which had been broadcast to schools of the third and fourth grades to increase appreciation of high-grade musical compositions, and that other educational features were being worked out for his corporation by a progressive school superintendent. Five

thousand congratulatory letters a week, he said, had been received from those who had heard the Damrosch concerts. "Can radio take the place of the face-toface teacher?" remarked Mr. Ellsworth, "No; it is supplementary. Let the educators determine how we can be useful, and we will welcome their suggestions."

William S. Paley, president of the Columbia Broadcasting System, thought that good work could be accomplished in primary and secondary grades through the medium of radio, and cited the work of his corporation in story-telling, music, history, geography, science, hygiene, spelling games, etc.

Chairman Robinson, of the Federal Radio Commission, after praising the work already accomplished by the broadcasting companies, asked the question: "Shall we leave educational broadcasting to the commercial companies, or shall the Federal Government establish a central station of its own for that purpose?" "The time has come," he said, “when radio should not be directed merely for commercial purposes, but for the nationwide interests of civic and character training. There should be, I think, some kind of supervision, at least, by the Federal Government along these lines. Through the Bureau of Education of the Department of the Interior the scattered efforts of private enterprises could be

coordinated." Judge Robinson also discussed the practicability of the States owning their own stations for broadcasting educational material to their schools.

Mr. Shipherd considered the advisability of a Federal commission on educational broadcasting to cooperate with the National Education Association and the colleges and universities.

Although no definite conclusions were formulated at the conference, the discussions were provocative of many fruitful exchanges of opinion. It was finally recommended that a commission should be appointed to study the problems involved in the program presented by the Secretary of the Interior. Secretary Wilbur declared that he would recommend to the President of the United States that he consider the advisability of appointing a commission to investigate the subject.