last two or three centuries, was very imperfectly performed, by placing the blank piece of money between two dies, or steel punches containing the design or figure of the coin, and striking upon the upper one with a hammer. The imperfection of this hammer money was caused by the uncertainty of placing the two dies exactly over each other, and the improbability of a man's being able to strike a blow with such force as to make all parts of the impression equally perfect.

§338. The coining press, or mill, now used, was invented in France. The bars or ingots of gold or silver, after having been cast, are taken out of the moulds, and their surfaces cleaned. They are then flattened by rollers, and reduced to the proper thickness to suit the species of money to be coined. The plates are next cut out into round pieces by a circular steel punch of the size of the coin, which is driven downward by a powerful screw, and passes through a corresponding circular hole, carrying before it the piece of metal which is punched out. These pieces are brought to the standard weight, if necessary, by filing or rasping the deficient pieces, together with the corners and pieces of the plates, are returned to the melter. The inscription or impression on the edge is made by rolling the coin, edgewise, between two plates of steel containing the engraved edging. The stamping is performed by pressing the piece with a powerful screw between two steel dies, on which the figure to be impressed is engraved.

§ 339. The place where money is coined by public authority, is called the mint. The officers and persons who

conduct the business of the mint of the United States, are a director, a treasurer, an assayer, a chief coiner, an engraver, and a melter and refiner. The director, with the approbation of the president of the United States, employs the necessary clerks and workmen, and has the chief management of the business of the mint. The treasurer receives the metals brought to be coined, and gives receipts for them. The assayer receives from the treasurer a sufficient number of grains of every parcel, and assays them. This is a pro

Describe the coining process. § 339. What is mint? What is the business of the director, treasurer, and assayer? What is alloy?

cess to ascertain the quantity of gold or silver in the alloy. Alloy is a composition formed by the combination of two or more metals. To alloy means to mix a metal of less with one of greater value. The baser metals are used to alloy gold and silver coins, to prevent their loss by wear.

§ 340. The treasurer delivers the assayed metals to the chief coiner, from whom he receives them when struck, and pays or delivers them to the persons to whom they are to be delivered. He also keeps all moneys for the support of the mint, and pays them out upon warrants signed by the director. The chief coiner causes to be coined all metals received by him for that purpose. The engraver sinks and prepares the dies with the proper devices and inscriptions. The melter and refiner takes charge of all copper, or silver and gold bullion delivered out by the treasurer after it has been assayed, and reduces them into bars or ingots fit for the rolling mills. Bullion is uncoined gold or silver in plates, bars, or masses.

§ 341. The proportional value of gold to that of silver coins by law current as money in the United States was formerly as fifteen to one; that is, fifteen pounds of pure silver were equal in value to one pound of pure gold. But in 1834, congress by law changed the proportional and standard values. The present value of gold coins of the United States is as sixteen to one of silver. The value of the eagle of the old coinage is consequently about $10,66; and the new eagle contains a quantity of gold only that was before valued at about $9,38. Foreign gold coins are made lawful, according to their real value, by the same standard with our own. The dollars of Spain, Mexico, and the South American states, are lawful at the same value with our own dollars. The five franc pieces of France are lawful at 93 cents each.

§342. Congress shall have power, "To provide for the "punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current "coin of the United States."-Art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 6.

§ 343. The power to coin money would be of little use

§ 340. What is the business of the chief coiner, engraver, and melter and refiner? What is bullion? § 341. What was formerly, and what is at present, the standard value of coin? § 342, 343. Why is the

without the power to provide for the punishment of counterfeiting it; and although this power might be reasonably considered as implied in the power to coin money, it is with propriety granted by express provision.

§ 344. The counterfeiting and debasing of current coin are deemed aggravated offences, and are punished with heavy penalties. Any person who shall falsely make, or fraudulently pass, any coin in resemblance of the gold or silver coin of the United States, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five thousand dollars, and imprisonment not ex ceeding ten years, according to the aggravation of the of fence. For falsifying or lightening any gold or silver coin in actual use as money, the penalty is imprisonment not exceeding two years, and fine not exceeding two thousand dollars. For counterfeiting copper coin, a fine not exceed. ing one thousand dollars, and imprisonment not exceeding three years.

§345. Any officer or person employed at the mint of the United States, who shall debase or make worse any gold or silver coin, as to the proportion of fine gold or fine silver, or shall make the same of less weight or value than it ought to be, with a fraudulent intent, or shall embezzle any of the metals left at the mint to be coined, shall be guilty of felony, and imprisoned not less than one year, nor more than ten years, and fined not exceeding ten thousand dollars.

§ 346. Fines and penalties similar to the above are inflicted upon persons who counterfeit or forge any public security, treasury note, deed, power of attorney, certificate of public stock, or other writing relative to the business of the United States.

§ 347. The exclusive power to fix the standard of weights and measures is properly given to congress, in order to ensure uniformity throughout the United States: that body has not yet legislated on the subject. Each state, therefore, retains the right to adopt and regulate its own standard.

power to punish counterfeiting necessary? § 344, 345. What is the penalty for counterfeiting and debasing coin? § 346. What other species of counterfeiting is punishable? § 347. Has congress exercised its power to fix the standard of weights and measures?

CHAPTER XIII.

Post Offices and Post Roads.

$348. CONGRESS shall have power, "To establish post

"offices and post roads."-Art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 7.

§349. The vast importance of a general and rapid circulation of intelligence among the people, and the utility of the post office in aiding the government to perform its business operations in all parts of the union with economy and despatch, rendered some provision necessary to facilitate the transportation of the mail. The propriety of intrusting the sole regulation of the post office department to the general government, is manifest. Indeed, it is impossible to conceive how a business so complicated could be managed by the states.

§ 350. It is the opinion of some, that the power to establish post offices and post roads is limited to the power of establishing post routes, or pointing out the roads on which the mails are to be carried, of directing where post offices shall be kept, and of appointing postmasters. The more probable opinion is, that congress may also make or repair roads wherever or whenever the same shall be necessary for the conveyance of the mail. This necessity, however, can rarely occur, as roads are seldom wanting where there are people to be accommodated by mails.

§ 351. A general post office was established by the colonial congress, as early as the year 1775. The laws by which it has been regulated have been changed, from time to time, as improvements were suggested, and as the increase of its business demanded. The business of the general post office is under the supervision of a postmaster general. This officer is at present considered a member of the president's cabinet, and the general post office an auxiliary executive department.

§ 348, 349. What is the use of the power to establish post offices? § 350. What opinions prevail respecting the extent of this power? § 351. When was the general post office established? What is the chief officer called? 352. What are his principal duties 6 353

§ 352. The postmaster general establishes post offices, appoints postmasters and other persons employed in the several departments of the general post office, and gives instructions relative to their duties. He provides for carrying the mail on all post roads as often as he may think proper, and directs the revenues arising in the department, and all debts due the same, to be paid into the treasury of the United States. And it is his duty to make to congress, at each annual session, a report of all contracts made for the transportation of the mail the preceding year, and re ports of the expenditures and receipts of the department.

§ 353. The postmaster general is assisted by three assistant postmasters general, and such number of clerks as the business of the department may require; and an auditor of the treasury of the post office department, who is ap pointed by the president and senate, and whose duty it is to receive all accounts arising in the department, and to audit and settle the same, and to superintend the collection of the debts due the department.

§ 354. Contracts for the transportation of the mails are

made as follows:

The postmaster general gives twelve weeks' previous notice, in one newspaper published at the seat of government, and in one or more in the state in which the contracts are to be made for transporting the mail, that such contracts are to be made. Those who wish to engage to transport the mails on any of the routes advertised, send their proposals to the postmaster general, stating the lowest sum for which they will agree to carry the mail. He that proposes to carry for the least sum has the contract.

§ 355. The rates at which letters, newspapers, pamphlets, and magazines are carried by mail, are established by law, and are as follows: 1.

For every letter composed of a single sheet of paper, not exceeding thirty miles, six cents; over thirty, not exceeding eighty miles, ten cents; over eighty, not exceeding one hundred and fifty miles, twelve and a half cents; over one hundred and fifty, not exceeding four hundred miles, eighteen

What assistance does he receive? § 354. How are contracts made for transporting the mail? § 355. What are the rates of postage on