which is proved by elaborate and exhaustive argument. If these results are confirmed, there are many who believe that no generalizations since Newton's discovery of gravitation in 1687 will have more far-reaching effects upon all the sciences which deal with the earth. Prof. See has given public lectures on the subject at the University of California, and it is said that the greatest interest has been aroused there. The Seismological Society of America has been organized, with Prof. Davidson as presi dent and Prof. See as one of the vicepresidents. It is reported that he had just finished his mathematical researches on the physical constitution of the sun and planets when the earthquake occurred, and it became necessary to come down to the study of the phenomena of the earth. The earthquakes in Valparaiso and Kingston illustrate the new theory, and show that steam within the earth is the cause. All great earthquakes occur along the seacoast or on islands in the sea. THE STUDY OF SOME TYPICAL EUROPEAN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS By the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education England. trol of industrial education, yet the local conditions vary enor The committee which was sent by the subsidies, and consequently national conMassachusetts Commission on Industrial Education to investigate certain industrial educational conditions in some of the most important European countries, and which consisted of Charles H. Winslow, a member of the commission, and Charles H. Morse, the secretary and executive officer, has brought back most interesting and valuable reports on what it has found by observation and personal inquiry. The information gathered includes not only an account of the various schools at present in operation, both as regards the courses of study and the administration and financing, but embraces as well the views of some of the foremost authorities on industrial education, together with the attitude of both employers and employes toward the instruction provided by numerous schools operated by means of state, local and municipal subsidies, and by private funds. A very important element in this investigation was the obtaining at first hand of the opinions of those qualified to judge concerning the effects of the plans at present in operation for giving industrial education to the youth of both sexes. While in England there are national mously, and no one place will stand as a representative example of the whole country, or even of any extended section of it. There can be no doubt, however, as to the national and local awakening to the need of industrial education; but the existing social conditions which have to be met, and which are not only peculiar to England but to the separate localities, will make progress slow and experimental. It seems to be a fact, however, that in general the industrial education movement is most active and farthest advanced in London. In Liverpool, with its great technical school, which cost upwards of half a million dollars, the conditions are most interesting. There are 1,500 pupils in the evening classes, but, except for some special summer classes of adults, this finely constructed and well-equipped building is unoccupied during the daytime, largely, perhaps, because it is feared that day-time industrial instruction would interfere with the regular public schools by prematurely attracting pupils from them. As a rule, pupils do not apply for instruction in this school unless they are working or have worked, in the trade they wish to study, the evening pupils being employed during the day-time in the occupation in which they seek instruction. The famous Manchester School of Technology was visited, and, as was to be expected of such an industrial city as Manchester, this school was found to be housed in a magnificent building, which cost $1,500,000, and run on a correspondingly large scale. The enormous running expenses are paid in part by the State, in part by the city and in part by the student's fees. In London the committee was enabled to get in touch with the new features which are there being introduced in the extension of industrial training. A matter of special interest is the Imperial College of Technology, the formation of which has been authorized by the govern ment. London seems to be fairly well provided with polytechnic schools of the class of those in Manchester and Liverpool, for it has seven such institutions, to which boys of sixteen to eighteen years of age are admitted after a shortened course in the secondary schools. Its provisions for elementary technical education assumes enormous propor tions. It was evident on all sides that the working conditions in England are quite different from those in this country, and even from those on the Continent. The poor man's chance for education, not only in the Liverpool section but elsewhere, may be briefly summed up thus: Free elementary education; fairly cheap secondary education; competitive scholarships for advanced education. France. * * * tions were mainly pursued, were quite in contrast with those which had just been observed in Great Britain. In the latter country the schools are housed in new buildings, and the evening schools for apprentices seemed most popular. In France, on the contrary, the schools occupy older buildings, and there is a corresponding settled atmosphere to the instruction. In France, too, the pupils begin their trade studies as early as thirteen years of age, and the training received recognized value in francs. The French schools are conducted on much more formal lines than in England, and some of the Paris schools draw upon the various departments of France as well as upon Paris for their pupils. The high character of the work in French schools is particularly noticeable, even that done by the youths whose ages do not exceed fifteen years. A decided tendency of these schools is to educate the pupils artistically as well as in skillful manipulation. Places in the schools are eagerly sought by ambitious young people who desire to prepare themselves for higher positions in the trades, for they recognize that this education means greatly increased earning ability. Breadth of training in the French schools is indicated by the training given in the Estienne Professional School for Bookmaking, where during the first six months of instruction, the pupil is introduced to the rudiments of the various associated trades taught in the school; he is then required to make a choice of one of the seventeen specific trades taught, and this he follows to the end of his course. In many of the schools in Paris a midday meal is provided, at the modest price of 10 cents, which includes a course dinner and a bottle of wine. This is significant of the care taken of the health of the pupils. * * * The committee entered France by way of Boulogne, where the trades school was visited as representative of the trades instruction in smaller French cities. Here it was found that the mayor is in charge of the public schools, as well as of the other municipal departments. Some of the points especially noticed regarding the French industrial schools there and in the Department of the Seine, where the investiga- Horological School occupies a fore The working of the Swiss schools was studied at Geneva, Berne and Zurich, Switzerland. each of which had its Own specialties to offer. In Geneva the summer most position. During the months the hours of instruction are from 7 to 6, and in the winter from 8 to 7, with an hour and a half of freedom in the middle of the day. During the year only four weeks' vacation is allowed. Many workmen of extraordinary skill are developed by this school. One of the former students whose specialty was clock regulating earned 25,000 francs a year, and others earn 8,000 to 10,000 francs. The Technicum is one of the most important schools, and its position is between that of the apprentice school, which aims at turning out good, ordinary workmen, and the polytechnic school, which gives advanced instruction for the education of architects and engineers. The Central School of Industrial Arts has been in existence since 1876. The cost of maintenance is 100,000 francs annually; of this, 76,000 francs is paid by the city and the remainder by the confederation. Pupils pay an entrance fee of 5 francs, but there are no other charges. The Apprenticeship School in Berne has four departments, which offer instruction in the trades of machinist, cabinet making, locksmithing and tinsmithing. The expenses are borne by the city, the Canton of Berne, the Swiss Federation and the sale of the products of the school. Tuition is free to Swiss pupils, who must be over fifteen years of age and possess an elementary school education. In Zurich the expense of the present system is divided as follows: The canton contributes 40,000 francs and the Federal Government from 80,000 to 100,000 francs. In Switzerland an ordinary day laborer receives 3 francs a day, a tinsmith 31⁄2 francs, and a machinist ordinarily 5 francs and in some cases 8 or 9 francs. In general, the Swiss workmen receive more than those in France or Germany, the average pay being 311⁄2 francs a week. By the new law for apprentice instruction, which was voted on by the voters of the whole country, all apprentices in Switzerland will be obliged to attend their department schools. That there is at present no uniform system of industrial education throughout Switzerland is due to the lack of means and not to the lack of interest in the matter. Germany. The industrial schools of Germany are justly celebrated for their thorough, systematic and comprehensive instruction. They cover the whole educational period; there are the lower industrial schools, which connect directly with the common schools, and thus become continuation schools and give training to workmen; the higher industrial schools which correspond to our technical colleges and produce the leading technologists; and the middle industrial schools for pupils who have gone through the lower industrial schools, but who desire to shorten the period of higher education, although they wish to prepare themselves to become upper foremen or assistant superintendents. As a usual thing, the instruction in the lower schools is given in the evening and on Sundays; but there is a general movement towards carrying on all this instruction in the day time, as is now chiefly done in the city of Munich, where these schools are found in their greatest perfection. In fact, it is with surprise that the foreign inquirer views the elaborate preparations made by this city for its youthful learners of trades. It is by a combination of the financial resources of the city, the trade guilds and the Central Government that the great expense of these schools is met. But their importance is fully realized. Attendance upon these schools is compulsory for apprentices. In the lower industrial schools of Munich instruction in about forty different trades is provided. It was noted that in many of these schools the instruction is still too theoretical. In Germany, as in other European countries, the state takes the liveliest interest in the encouragement of local industries. In one of the Munich technical schools, whose building cost half a million marks, the anual expense of maintenance is 80,000 marks, of which the state contributes one half and the city the other half. In another of the Munich schools, where there are some 1,800 pupils, with a teaching staff of 100, the equipment is most complete; in the printing department, for instance, 28,000 marks were expended on machinery alone. Of the special industrial schools in Germany, those devoted to textile industries are among the most interesting; and here again was found a lower school for the training of workmen and a higher school for the development of superintendents and specializing experts. Berlin is, with its great school of arts and its industrial art museums, without question, the great centre of industrial art in Germany. These institutions offer both day and evening instruction, and the classes are well attended, the total number of pupils running well up into the hundreds. It has been distinctly recognized in Germany that there must be a proper blending of purely educational and purely industrial forces in order to produce the desired effects in industrial education; nevertheless, in this combination it has been the industrial force which has had the administrative duties to perform, and the purely educational force has been active chiefly in an advisory capacity. Thus we find that Germany is giving the same careful consideration to its industrial schools that it has given to its common schools, which have brought about such splendid results. Belgium. * * * In Belgium industrial education is taken most seriously; but those who have it in charge deplore the fettering which they experience, due to established tratditions. In Brussels the industrial school work is largely confined to evening instruction; but in the day industrial schools the hours of instruction are usually from 8:30 to 12 and from 1:30 to 4. School keeps six days in the week, and only fifteen days in the year are granted for holidays. While some of the Belgium schools are free, in others rather high tuition is charged. The Belgium school for training pupils professionally in the machinist's trade offers a course of three years. In the first year all pupils take the same general course, but after that each specializes in some branch of machinist's work. Many of the former pupils of the school now occupy prominent positions. The expenses of the school are paid by the city, the province and the state. None of the products of the school are sold in the open market. This school is but typical of others found in the large cities of Belgium. In these various schools a specialty is made of teaching the local industries. The industrial school for girls in Brussels is in any respects one of the most markedly successful schools visited by the committee. Not only was there a great variety of industries represented, but the instruction in each was unusually complete. The pupils possessed an air of intelligence which betokened keen interest in their work and the high degree of success with which their studies had been pursued. Girls enter this school at the age of twelve or thereabouts, and remain four or five years. General studies, the conduct and management of a household, and special trades, such as dressmaking, millinery and cooking, or commercial training, form the order of instruction. The fees of this school are 100 francs a year. The whole school plan is to educate the girls so that they may perform their duties equally well as wives or work women. A second school of this workwomen. type is found in Brussels, and others in various parts of Belgium. The professional school of carpentry in Brussels, which has been in operation. for only three years, offers a course of four years, the first year being devoted to general studies. It aims to turn out a good workman at the end of the course, at about the age of eighteen years, instead of forcing the youth to go through the long apprenticeship at present customary. A visiting syndicate of carpenters, composed of members from various parts of the country, recently visited the school, and after inspecting the work expressed their approval of the institution. This school is maintained by appropriations from the city and the state. One of the features of this school is the close relationship which it establishes with the parents of the pupils. Holland. In Amsterdam a visit was paid to the school for metal workers. This school will be classed as a pre apprenticeship school, it not being claimed that a trade is taught completely. There are given courses in wood work, forging and ornamental iron work and machine shop practice; the pupils entering at about fourteen years of age, and remaining in the school two years, each pupil taking all the courses. One half of the time is devoted to shop work, the other half to the theory of the various branches taught in the shops and to drawing. The school is very thorough, and it is said that the graduates are taking leading positions in the various trades. It is believed by the principal of the school that this general foundation for apprenticeship is invaluable to the pupils. It is hoped that later specialized work in the three trades will follow the general courses; this to occupy from one to two years. For three years after graduation the pupils of this school are required to report to the school the names of their employers, amount of wages received and the character of the work performed. In this manner the officials of the school keep in touch with its former pupils. * * * In Scotland the two representative institutions devoted to industrial education Scotland. are the Heriot-Watt College at Edinburgh and the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College at Glasgow. The work of the former school embraces a day, evening and summer courses along the lines of applied education. Edinburgh possesses a museum in which there is a wonderful collection of mechanical models, which not only illustrate the mechanical construction of the machines, but also show the movements of their parts when put in operation by the observer by simply pressing a button. The Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College at Glasgow is housed in a new building of imposing proportions. Originating as long ago as 1796 as Anderson's College, it owes its exist, ence to John Anderson, professor of natural philosophy in the University of Glasgow, who was in the habit of visiting the local works and thus becoming acquainted at first hand with the trade industries of Glasgow and the men who carried them on and did the work. In 1886 this college was united with other local institutions to form the great school which is now conducted under the present name. It was the declared object of the school "to afford suitable education to those who wished to qualify themselves for following an industrial profession or trade." The expressed purpose of this school is not to supersede the ordinary apprenticeship, but rather to supplement it. There has been spent on the building nearly a million dollars, and an additional expenditure of $350,000 is planned for. The equipment has cost $125,000, and an additional $150,000 is deemed necessary to place the instruction on the desired basis. The total attendance on the school is about 6,000 students, three-fourths of whom are evening pupils. It should be distinctly noted that about 70 per cent of the day students and 80 per cent of the evening students are over twenty years of age. The day students come from all parts of the British Islands and the Colonies, while practically all the important works within twenty-five miles of Glasgow are represented in the evening classes. Ireland. Few persons outside of Ireland are aware of the extensive provision made for industrial educain Ireland. This matter is considered of such importance that a sum of no less than a million dollars is spent annually in this island for this object, and this with a population not very much larger than that of Massachusetts. Of this sum $250,000 is contributed by the local authorities and the remainder by the Council of Agriculture. It is significant that the work of giving industrial training in Ireland is in charge of a department bearing the title "Department of Agriculture and Technical |