result; that flexibility in the program accomplished such and such results. The experimentation must be widespread and

whole hearted.

On the basis of knowledge gained, we can reorganize our doctrine, from time to time, as the scientist does, in a scientific way. We shall make mistakes. We demand the right to make mistakes. The faith of the American people in education is attested by the expenditure of millions of dollars annually. We cannot justify this faith if we are satisfied to present certificates of efficiency to a moiety of our school population at the end of eight or twelve years in school. The democratic ideal of education asks that every pupil, poor and good alike, attain his fullest self-realization, find his highest satisfaction in private and public service. Amid the deadening routine of our everyday life in school let this be the vision constantly before our eyes, lest we perish. The good pupil, child of a King, the poor pupil, child of a King, daily asks for sustenance at our hands. Let us reach them both, let us teach them both, and to both let this be our teaching: To work hard; to play hard; to know a little about many things; to know a few things well; to love much; to hate little; to be honest and to be kind..

JOHN BURTON PHILLIPS, UNIVERSITY OF COLORado, boulder, coloraDO

N

EVER before were the demands so great on the

person who desires to be an efficient member of society. The meaning of the word citizenship has greatly expanded with the progress of time. To be a good citizen now is more difficult than in the days of the fathers. It is true the fathers had their difficult problems, but we also have problems fully as difficult and many more of them. Progress brings new duties in its train. Changes in industry are responsible for the great number of grievous questions now before us.

In the olden days industry was not conducted on the scale characteristic of modern times. Most of the manufacturing was done in the homes of the workers. The employer was his own workman, and there was then no labor problem. If children were employed they worked at home and in the open air under wholesome conditions. There was no "lung block" and no child labor problem. The consumer raised his own food and kept his own cow. He needed no food inspector to protect him from disease.

Again, one hundred years ago the great majority of our people were engaged in agriculture. This is an occupation. that does not develop strife between labor and capital. There was then no fighting for the shorter working day, because in the winter months the farmers and farm laborers had a long period of rest. The division of labor was comparatively slight as compared with what it is to-day. Hence, the opportunity for labor troubles was not present.

There are two principal causes that have contributed largely to change our industrial civilization. They are the invention of machinery and the disappearance of the frontier in the United States. Indispensably necessary as is machinery to modern civilization, and beneficent as are its results in many directions, it has, nevertheless, brought certain problems which we have as yet been unable to solve. One of the most con

spicuous effects of the use of machinery is the concentration of population in cities. The growth of cities did not begin until after machinery was invented and introduced. No means has yet been discovered by which the power in coal may be transmitted over long distances. The consequence is that if we use machinery it must be employed near the place where the power is generated. Large factories must be located near the power plant. Hence, the growth of cities and the problems of city government and public health. One hundred years ago there was no tenement house problem, there were no "lung blocks," there was no troublesome question of the water supply. These and the other great problems of city administration which have opened the door to temptation and made the word "municipal " suggest corruption are machine made.

The effect of machinery in substituting child labor for the labor of adults is well known. Before the invention of machinery the amount of work that the human being could perform was limited by his strength, and as the adult had more strength than the child, his labor was preferred. But the limit to the work that can be done when machinery is employed is the forces of nature, and the strength or weakness of the human unit is not of so much consequence. As long as children can keep awake and watch the automatic machine so as to press the button and call the foreman in case it gets out of order, they are as efficient as adults in the process of manufacture.

There were according to the last census of the United States, 1,700,000 children under sixteen years of age employed in manufacture in the United States. The employment of children in manufacture produces a stunted race. In Manchester, England, where children have been employed to a greater or less degree since the development of the textile industry there, more than one hundred years ago, 11,000 prospective soldiers were examined for the Boer War; 10,000 of these were rejected as they were too short of stature, too light in weight, and did not have the requisite chest development.

Machinery has also widened the gap between the employer and the workmen. In the olden days the employee owned his tools and had a certain degree of independence. Now the

employer owns the tools and the workmen sell their time. A great degree of their independence is therefore gone. The conditions of work are under the control of the employer. The workers are not able to make their influence felt in the management of industry except by bringing pressure to bear upon the employer in various ways. From this friction labor troubles result.

The second great cause that has contributed to lay on the intelligent citizen additional burdens is the disappearance of the frontier in the United States. It has been a region where aggressiveness was at a premium, a place where the individuals of strong character came easily to the front, and where the restless spirits of the adventurous and insubordinate could find a safe outlet for their energies. If a young man dreaded the years that must be spent in college to fit him for professional life, he had the alternative of going West, and there exerting himself to subdue the virgin soil, and in the progress of time might with comparative ease become one of the leading citizens of the future state. This opportunity was constantly bidding for the young blood of the nation. It has kept wages high. If the worker could not get the wage demanded, he might go into the new country, and provide a home and competence for himself.

This frontier has largely passed away. Its disappearance has tended to drive population into the cities. There is no longer a place in the West for the aggressive and adventurous individual. The virgin soil is gone. The next most congenial place for his restless spirit is in the great cities. He migrates there, and helps to increase the municipal problems.

This disappearance of the frontier has greatly changed the demands of modern education. With the passing of the frontier and its opportunities, it has become necessary to adapt education to the needs the satisfaction of which is essential to the success of the young man and woman. As long as there was abundant opportunity for success in life in fields in which education was not an indispensable necessity, the bad effects of a curriculum that did not provide the most essential instruction were not seriously felt. Education was a more or less second

ary matter with our grandfathers, and properly so, as they were engaged in redeeming a continent. A high degree of education was not needed in the work in which they were engaged.

All this is changed. The Western wilds have been redeemed. The opportunities for the young man and woman are in the cities. More skill is required to make a living in a city than is needed to exploit wild lands. A superior education is necessary to insure the highest success in the city industries of an undeveloped country. Hence, there is a very much closer relation now between education and opportunity than during the time when we had the undeveloped possibilities of the frontier. When it was easy to make a living by exploiting natural resources, it was not important that those studies immediately connected with success in life be taught in the public schools. When the passing of the frontier has made success in life much more difficult, greater attention must needs be given to the course of study and its adaptation to the needs of the present generation.

Among the chief problems of education at the present time is the question of training American citizens. Owing to the causes above enumerated this training is much more difficult now than ever before. The American citizen of to-day must be trained to have an intelligent opinion on the problems that have resulted from our hundred years of progress. Among these are municipal government with its related problems as tenements, public health, water supply, rapid transit, lighting, etc., labor problems, including child labor, poverty, crime, pauperism, railroads, immigration, education, etc. On all these questions the modern citizen is expected to have an intelligent opinion. It has, therefore, been found necessary to provide training in the subjects in the universities, and the leading institutions in the country have established departments of economics and sociology in which such instruction is given. More and more these subjects must needs find their way into the public schools, and instruction along these lines will not be without effect in elevating the tone of future citizenship, and increasing its capacity for social service.