as at present will remain for export. Without going into tedious calculations, which at best would be but conjectural, it might be stated that for the coming thirty or forty years Siberia's chances of becoming the "granary" of the world and a serious competitor of American wheat are not great.

The eastern parts of Siberia, the Littoral region more particularly, already shown, cannot be regarded as a hopeful wheat area; more likely is the production and exportation of considerable quantities of millet to neighboring China. In the more southern regions, the Semiretchie, and those of the Syr-Daria and Amudaria, however, the possibilities for cotton cultivation are great, particularly after the completion of the projected irrigation system, and it is quite likely that Russia will soon raise there all the cotton required for its manufactures both for consumption at home and for export to the East. It is to the transportation of these and other manufactured goods eastward, as well as silks, furs, butter, meat, tea and cereals westward, that the Siberian Railway may owe its financial success, if awaits it. That the prospective eastward wheat shipments from the Transbaikalian region will be sufficient to make the eastern part of the Siberian and the Manchurian railways a profitable investment from the purely financial standpoint is more than doubtful. The government itself expects this region to become but "the chief granary of the Amoor Littoral region."

any

The same remarks apply to the transportation of bulky articles, such as coal and iron, which will scarcely ever be able to bear the high cost of land transportation to China, whatever the optimistic views now expressed on the subject. The prospects of developing an iron and coal industry close by the Chinese border are not superior to those of developing the same industries in China itself, where ore and coal are known to exist in larger quantities than in Siberia.

Summing up, the main conclusions would be: 1. The Siberian railway, by facilitating immigration, will contribute to a speedier settlement of the available area of cultivation, provided the government favors an energetic colonization policy; for the years immediately following the construction of the railway the importance of Siberia as a competitive area will be small, though steadily increasing, sending its wheat rather West than East.

2. Its importance in the development of great industries, such as mining, iron, and gold, may be greater, as enabling the placing in the proper localities of European and American capital; also the transportation for greater distances of the output of these industries.

3. The railway will most likely in the near future become the mail route and the great highway of travel between Europe and the Orient because of the economies of time and money, respectively, as . compared with the steamship routes over Suez and the Indian Ocean.

4. With the further industrial development of Russia, the railway may serve the purposes of industrial expansion-i. e., the conquests of markets for Russian manufactures-already begun at the expense of England. Its greatest

importance is, of course, of strategic character, as tending to enhance the political influence of Russia in the far East-a question that naturally falls outside the limits of this study.

In 1897 Russia's export of butter was about 19 million pounds, but in the first ten months of 1900 had increased to nearly 38 million. The principal increase has been in the Siberian article, which is conveyed to Baltic ports in refrigerator butter trains. It is prized on account of its low price, great keeping quality, and freedom from adulteration.

SHIPPING.-In 1898, out of the whole mercantile marine registered in Russia, 95 steamers, of 19,053 tons and 586 sailers, of 78,745 tons belonged to the Baltic Sea; 33 steamers, of 5,028 tons, and 396 sailers, of 22,149 tons, to the White Sea; 263 steamers, of 142,512 tons, and 973 sailers, of 54,535 tons, to the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov; 213 steamers and 539 sailers to the Caspian Sea. Among her various lines of expansion, Russia has not neglected her merchant marine, which was recently limited to the Baltic wool trade, but in 1901 includes more than 3,050 steamships, including the numerous river steamers. A recent ukase limits coast trade in Russia to its own bottoms, and this law will soon cover the trade between European and Asiatic Russia, via Suez. The government furthermore pays two-thirds of the canal dues on steamers bound to a foreign Asiatic port, and also admits free from duty foreign-built iron vessels intended for external navigation, all vessels for service on the Danube under the Russian flag, and anchors. chains, wire-cable and sailing-ship tackle.

As

a result of this aid many new steamship companies are springing into existence; for instance, the Russian Orient-Asiatic Company, and the Russian Steamship Company, which, with a fleet of 65 steamers, is the most important.

RIVERS AND CANALS.-In 1895 there were plying on Russian rivers (exclusive of Finland, Caucasus and Siberia) 2,539 steamers, capable of 190,000 tons load, and 20,580 vessels of various kinds, capable of 8,504,280 tons load. For Siberia there were in 1896 114 steamers of 5,000 tons on the Ob, and 157 steamers of 6,314 tons on the Yenisei, Lena and Amur. In the whole empire are 55,000 miles of navigable rivers, 507 miles of canals, and 711 miles of canalized rivers. The traffic on these waterways of European Russia, exclusive of Poland, Finland and Caucasus, was for 1898 as follows: Cereals 3.8 million tons, firewood 3.9, timber 11.1, naphtha 3.9, total 29.0 millions of tons. A canal is now-April, 1901-projected to connect the Caspian and Black seas, at a cost of $20,600,000. This is designed to meet the Southern rapidly growing need of Russia, which is becoming the center of Russian trade and manufacture, since the chief supplies of found iron, coal and petroleum are there. Among other things the cotton now grown in Russian Central Asia will be manufactured there.

RAILWAYS.-The lines belonging to and worked by the government amount to 20.111 miles, those by public companies 9,591 miles. while unconnected lines run 2.310 miles, and short local lines 752 miles. In 1898 the net receipts were 188 million rubles, passengers car

ried were 83,708,100, and freight 118.106,000 tons. The number of passengers having been only from one-third to one-tenth that of western Europe, a zone-tariff was introduced in 1894 whereby cost of travel was much reduced, travel increased by 29 per cent in three years, and revenue grew by 16 per cent. up to 1898. (For Trans-Siberian Railway see next number.) MONEY AND BANKING.-At the close of 1899 Russian money included, in millions of rubles, each ruble being worth 51.5 cents: Gold at bank and treasury

Gold in circulation

Silver at bank and treasury. Silver in circulation..

(The silver is 9-10 fine.) Paper at bank and treasury. Paper in circulation

.927.0 .639.4 56.3 .164.2

.112.7 ....517.3

On November 30, 1900, there were 5.357 state, municipal and postal savings banks, with 3,504,140 depositors, and 639,934,000 rubles in deposit. Besides the above, there are mortgage banks and a land bank for the purchase of land by the peasants.

FOREIGNERS in Russia must conform to the following laws:

Section 817. Natives of all foreign countries who have not become Russian subjects are considered as foreigners.

Sec. 818. Foreigners of all nationality have the right to enter and to reside in Russia, as well as to leave Russia, in conformity with the regulations contained in the statutes relative to passports. These rules extend also to the natives of Kaim.

Remark 1.-Natives of Korea and China are prohibited from settling on the frontiers of Russia.

Remark 2.-The rules relative to the entry of foreign Jews into Russia are stipulated in the statutes relative to passports.

Sec. 819. Foreign Jews are not allowed to settle in Russia nor to become Russian subjects. (Investors and skilled workmen are excepted.)

Sec. 821. Dervishes are not allowed to become Russians.

Sec. 822. Foreigners who live in Russia are personally, as well as their property, subject to the laws of Russia and enjoy the privileges and protection of the laws.

Sec. 826. Foreigners, men of science, artists, capitalists, and owners of important factories and manufactories, although they do not become Russian subjects, may be personally given the title of honorary citizens when, with

a view to the benefits which may be reaped therefrom, the ministry will take steps for this purpose. In these cases, the title of honorary citizen is generally granted by a special ukase published by the existing Senate.

Sec. 827. Foreigners, scientific men, artists. rich traders, and owners of manufactories and works who have received, as stated in the foregoing (826) section, the title of honorary citizenship, may in like manner desire this title to be extended to their descendants, but not before they have acquired Russian subjection in the manner prescribed by law, and have lived under this title for a period of ten years. with the approval of the authorities. These foreigners who have not become Russian subjects may, ten years after they received the title of honorary citizen, ask that this title may be extended to their children who have become Russian subjects.

Sec. 828. Foreigners are allowed to take out industry certificates or licenses and to benefit by all the privileges which these licenses give to Russian subjects.

Sec. 829. Foreigners are allowed to participate in trading companies according to the statutes of industries and to hire and keep servants and workmen in accordance with the general laws.

Sec. 830. Foreigners may acquire, either through purchase, inheritance, legacy, allotment from the government, or in any other legal manner, all kind of real estate.

Sec. 833. Foreigners may enter into all kinds of agreements, obligations and contracts within the limits mentioned above, either be tween themselves or with Russian subjects; but in order to give these acts or deeds the proper power in Russia, they are required to observe in them all the existing regulations, both in their execution and form.

Intending advertisers in Russia should read the following notice given by Consul-General Holloway at St. Petersburg under date of March 12, 1901. It is not at all likely to be soon changed-in Russia:

American exporters who desire to circulate advertising matter printed in the Russian language in Russia must address a petition to His Excellency Count Alexander Moura vieff, chief of the central committee of foreign censorship, describing the character of the publication and its purpose, to which must be attached two copies of the publication for which admission is desired, praying for permission to admit and circulate the same in Russia. To this petition must be attached two Russian revenue stamps of the value of 1.60 rubles (84 cents), preferably two of 80 kopecks (42 cents) each. This petition will be more likely to receive immediate attention if written in the Russian or French language, though the same would be translated and forwarded if sent direct to the United States ambassador or consul-general at St. Petersburg, if accompanied by the amount necessary to purchase the revenue stamps.

Incendiary matter has been circulated in every form in Russia; hence the authorities censor everything that is printed as rigidly as they did a century ago.

SOURCES.-Statesman's Year Book for 1901.

Monthly Summaries of Commerce and Finance, prepared by the Treasury Department. Consular Reports, prepared by the Bureau of Foreign Commerce.

EDMUND BUCKLEY, PH. D.,
University of Chicago.

SCULPTURE, RECENT DISCOVERIES OF GREEK.-It is less than half a century since any direct knowledge of Greek sculpture, other than could be gained through late Roman copies of Greek work, became possible. When the Parthenon marbles were first brought to England by Lord Elgin, few critics recognized their value, because the standards of that day were based on such works as the Apollo Belvedere or the Laacoon.

But Greek soil has been restoring to us truly Greek marbles; and the wonderful difference between fresh Greek inspiration and the sentimental overrefinement or the heaviness of most copies is only too apparent. Within the past few years the sea bids fair to rival the land in giving back treasures of ancient art. Olympia preserved the Hermes of Praxiteles, and now a bronze Hermes, comparable in excellence only to the work of Praxiteles, has been found by sponge fishers near the southern coast of Greece.

The record of this remarkable discovery is contained in the Athenian morning papers of January 23, 1901 (Greek calendar). The gov ernment had sent two war vessels to investigate the rumor that divers had discovered some statues at the bottom of the sea, and on the evening before they had returned to the Peiraeus. The divers had indeed discovered a sunken vessel; some of its timbers were found buried in the sand, and its anchor was recovered; and of its cargo of Greek statues several had been wonderfully preserved in the shifting sands. In the stormy waters near Cerigo (ancient Kythera) the yacht Mentor, laden with marbles collected by Lord Elgin, sank early in the last century. The present discovery has to do with a much earlier catastrophe, for neither the cargo nor the fragments of the boat belong to any modern vessel. Lucian, in his Zeuxis, refers to a ship containing statues and other plunder belonging to Sulla, which was lost in a storm near Cape Malea; and while it would be rash to regard this as the identical boat mentioned by Lucian, there can be little doubt that it was a vessel carrying plunder intended for Rome, and that it was lost not far from the beginning of the Christian

era.

The statues thus recovered would be interesting for their romantic history, apart from any artistic value. In point of fact, however, they give us an entirely new conception of what Greek bronzes were. Some of the bronzes found in Italy are copies of Greek work of good period, and to this number has recently been added another of sufficient importance to be noted in this article. Of genuine Greek bronzes extremely few remain. A Poseidon of late date was found in the Corinthian gulf and is now in the museum at Athens, and some other interesting bronze statues of a late period have been excavated in Thessaly. The remarkable bronze charioteer, the gem of the

French discoveries at Delphi, shows some traces of archaism. One of the bronzes from Kythera, however, is a fine youth, probably a Hermes, of the fourth century, B. C.; and a second figure is assigned by competent critics to the fifth century. These bronzes and a marble statue of a crouching youth are most important contributions to our knowledge of Greek art.

1. THE BRONZE "HERMES." The name HERMES should probably be given to the nude statue of a youth, of somewhat more than life size. This statue was found in fragments and some portions are corroded by the action of the sea water. Fortunately the beautiful face is uninjured, and the fragments of the body fit together so that the whole figure can be reconstructed. He stood with his weight on his left foot, the right drawn slightly back; the left arm, like the right leg, is relaxed, while the right hand apparently holds some rounded ob

ject out in the direction in which he is looking. The rhythm of the whole figure, produced by relaxing the left arm and the right leg, is finely balanced, and the torsion of the body is well calculated to bring out the graceful play of muscles beneath the skin. The general mode of treatment, in particular the firm but extremely delicate treatment of the surface, can be compared only with the Hermes of Praxiteles. The fine oval of the face, contracting toward the rather small chin, and the sketchy treatment of the hair, recall again the style of Praxiteles.

It has been suggested that the figure represents Hermes addressing an audience, and that the right hand is extended in a rhetorical gesture. While no trace can be seen of any object held in the hand, it seems more likely that it did hold perhaps a ball, perhaps some large wreath used at a sacrifice. Whatever the action means, whatever name be applied to the figure, its essential meaning is clear. We see in it the ideal of young manhood-a perfect body expressing a noble mind.

2. SMALLER BRONZES. Two smaller bronzes,

each representing a nude youth standing, are preserved almost intact, although the surface is slightly corroded by the action of the water. The more interesting one is only about 22 inches high. The beauty of the face is marred by the loss of the lips, which were made of a different material and inserted. The attitude, with the left foot drawn slightly back, as well as the square propor

3. CROUCHING YOUTH.

tions of body and head, recall the style of Polykleitos. In spite of its small size it gives some idea of genuine Greek work in bronze during the latter part of the fifth century. The second statuette differs from the first in that a garment hangs over the left arm. The lines of head and face suggest a date later than that assigned to the one first considered, though there are many points of similarity between them.

One of the bronzes

3. THE CROUCHING YOUTH. marble statues found, with the that have been described certainly deserves mention. A crouching youth eagerly looks off into the distance; the right arm hangs relaxed. of the left only the shoulder remains, and this shows that the arm was raised. A wrestler, as M. Perdrizet points out, might easily be forced into this position; but a wrestler would bring both hands into play. Nor can he be a warrior holding a weapon in his right hand, as Dr. Waldstein suggests; the hand clearly was not grasping anything, for both arm and hand

Asiatic school, particularly in work assigned to Ephesus. The realistic treatment of the face would also be in line with this suggestion.

PEII.

4. THE BRONZE YOUTH FROM РомAlmost coincident with the discovery off Cerigo came the word that a beautiful bronze had been found at Pompeii. Photographs which have recently come into the hands of the writer warrant the belief that this bronze will find a place in the history of Greek art, hardly less important than that of the bronzes already mentioned. At first sight this nude boy, with extended right hand, cails to mind the celebrated Idolino of the Uffizi. The pose of the figure and its proportions are much the same. The head, however, is raised, and careful examination shows that it stands much closer to the work of Polykleitos himself than does the head of the Idolino. The flat top of the head, the squarer lines of the face, with its fully developed bones, the straight, rather thick nose, and the short chin-these marks of Polykleitos are seen in the new head, and not in the Idolino. The lines of the body, however, resemble those of the Idolino in a flatness of treatment which is absent from copies which give the best idea of Polykleitos' own work. The attempt to connect the newly discovered statue with the school of Pasiteles seems to me entirely unsuccessful.

The discoverers of this bronze hold that while it may have been used as a lamp-holder in the Roman period, the statue itself is the product of Greek art. Whatever the final verdict of critics, there is no doubt that the figure gives us a good idea of the bronze work of the school of Polykleitos. The realistic reproduction of the eyes in this youth, as in the Delphic charioteer, may make an unpleasant impression at first on the modern critic. This practice, like the coloring of certain parts of marble statues, is alien to our taste. In many other points we have found it necessary to modify our artistic standards to agree with those of Greece, and it is by no means impossible that in this point also we shall yield our prejudices. ARTHUR FAIRBANKS, PH. D.,

Professor of Greek, State University of Iowa.

STONEHENGE, FALLING OF.-The present condition of this prehistoric stone circle is the cause of great anxiety in England, and archæologists are considering the feasibility of restoring it to its former state. It is true that some of the granite masses fell in the latter part of the eighteenth century, but the close of the nineteenth has been signalized by the fall of so many that some effort must be made for the preservation of the monument.

The remaining stone of the central trilitbon is leaning downward to such an extent that its fall seems liable to occur at any time, and if this should happen it will cause more damage to the general structure than has been wrought by centuries.

Careful surveys having been made and published, both by Dr. Flinders Petrie and by Sir Henry James of the English Ordnance Survey, a partial restoration appears to be entirely feasible.

Some authorities claim that in order to keep the rock work in position after it has been

restored, it will be necessary to excavate the whole interior, going down to the chalk foundation, underpinning the statues while the work is going on, and filling up the space with concrete. It is claimed that by this means it is very possible that relics or inscriptions may be found which may throw light upon the original purpose of the monument, but on the other hand, it is objected that future generations might suppose the new concrete foundation to be a portion of the original work.

Although the monument is an object of national concern, still Stonehenge is private property.

It is one of the most remarkable examples of the ancient stone circles, and is situated in Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, about seven miles north of Salisbury.

It consists of two circles and two ovals with a large monolith in the center. The outer circle, about 300 feet in circumference, is composed of upright stones 16 feet in height and 18 feet in circumference, with others of similar size placed horizontally on top of them. Originally there were thirty uprights and thirty imposts, but in 1887 there were only seventeen uprights and seven imposts, which retained their position.

The inner circle, which is about nine feet distant from the other, consisted originally of forty single stones much smaller in size and unlike those of the outer circle, showing no evidence of having been hewn. The larger of the ovals was composed of five pairs of trilithons standing separate from each other and rising gradually in height from east to west. Only two of these remained entire in 1887. The inner oval consisted originally of nineteen stones, of which there are remains of eleven, tapering in form and taller than those of the inner circle.

In the center of the smaller oval is the supposed altar, a mass of granite fifteen feet in length. The whole is surrounded by a vallum and ditch about 370 yards in circumference.

Stonehenge is first mentioned by Nennius in the ninth century, who asserts that it was erected in commemoration of the four hundred nobles, who were treacherously slain near the spot by Hengist in 472.

A similar account of its origin is given in the triads of the Welsh bards, where its erec

tion is attributed to King Merlin, the successor of Vortigern; but later writers are generally of the opinion that it is of Druidical origin, although there are great differences of opinion as to its probable date, some placing it at 100 B. C., while others suppose that it belongs to about the fifth century of our own era.

It seems possible that the inner circle and inner oval constructed of smaller stones, is of earlier origin than the outer circle and oval.

For years it has been customary to witness the sunrise on midsummer day from Stonehenge. This custom is supposed to have descended from the Britons. The illustration is from a photograph taken June 21, 1901.

ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.-There is much anxiety in London over the discovery that this venerable historic pile is seriously affected by the digging of the electric tube in Holborn. A great work of inspection is going on and it is thought that the fissures in the walls are directly due to this cause. Forty masons are engaged in examining the structure, and in making repairs, but it has also been ascertained that the foundations are sinking and efforts are being made to prevent the projected underground railway in Cheapside from carrying out its proposed route in front of the building, as it is thought the great towering dome is in danger of falling if the ground is disturbed in front of the building.

Since London had a name three different cathedrals have been erected on the present site of St. Paul's. The first was built in the seventh century and dedicated by Ethelbert, King of Kent; but little is known of this except that it was destroyed by fire in 1087-1088.

The second cathedral appears to have been begun almost immediately after the destruction of the first, and the process of erection extended over at least two centuries. It therefore passed through and illustrated several phases of architectural taste. The progress of the building was retarded by fire and tempest, as well as other causes, and it was not completed until after the close of the thirteenth century. In 1312 the pavement of the eastern portion was laid. The spire, one of the loftiest in the world, rose to the height of 460 feet from the ground level.

The full length of the building was 596 feet, or 66 feet longer than Winchester Cathedral, which is now the longest in England. The breadth was 104 feet, and the internal height, to the ridge of the vaulting, 93 feet. The interior must have presented a splendid vista, with its grand nave and choir, each of twelve bays, its amply porched transepts and vaulted roof. It was almost destroyed by fire in 1561.

After this fire Queen Elizabeth gave out of her own purse 1,000 marks and 1,000 loads of timber toward repairing the cathedral. Other money was raised and much work was done. Sixty years later King James I. undertook to prosecute the work, but it went slowly.

In 1631 a new commission was appointed by Charles I, and in eight years a large sum of money had been collected for this purpose, and it was partially rebuilt, but the Revolution arrested the repairs of the building, and the great London fire. September 2, 1666, consigned it again to destruction.