The reserve buoyancy is never less than half a ton, and can be increased by expelling the water with powerful pumps. In the conning tower are placed the necessary connections for controlling the machinery, for driving and steering the vessel, sinking or rising, and for discharging the Whitehead torpedo with which she is equipped.

But England has, at last, been aroused to the necessity which confronts her, and she now has five submarine torpedo boats in process of construction at the works of Vickers' Sons & Maxim of London. The builders, of this valuable addition to the British navy furnish, under date of August 20, 1901, the following description of the vessels which are soon to be launched:

They will be 62% feet long, 114 feet beam, and will have a displacement of 120 tons, when submerged. They will be propelled by a 160horsepower gasoline engine when on the surface and storage battery when submerged. Each boat will carry a fuel supply that will enable it to steam 400 knots, at a surface speed of nine knots, and seven knots when submerged. The armament will consist of one torpedo tube at the extreme end of the bow, two feet underneath the water line.

Each boat will carry five torpedoes 114 feet long. The engines and the automatic moving rudders will prevent the boats from inclining at angles while diving and rising, will keep them submerged as long as desired, and will bring the vessels to a horizontal position when submerged.

The official trial will consist of a run of ten knots on the surface and two knots submerged. BEGINNINGS OF SUBMARINE NAVIGATION.William Bourne, an Englishman, has the credit of conducting the first experiments in this direction, but that was more than three hundred years ago and the record of his work has been lost.

In 1624 the Hollander, Cornelius von Drebbel, took a number of persons for an underwater sail in his submarine boat, which was worked by twelve pair of sculls and carried a sort of compressed air for breathing purposes.

In 1653, a Frenchman whose name is unknown built and operated a submarine boat in Rotterdam. Later in the century an Englishman by the name of Day built and operated a submarine boat, but on her second submerged run the hull was crushed under pressure due to depth of water, and the inventor perished.

In 1775, Captain David Bushnell of Connecticut built a boat which was forced under water by a vertical propeller and driven forward by a horizontal one, both worked by means of cranks in the hands of the one man who constituted the crew.

In 1797 and 1805, Robert Fulton, the American inventor, was experimenting with submarine navigation in France. He made important progress, and built a twin screw, handworked submarine boat whien made a submerged run of 4 hours and 20 minutes, placed a torpedo under a hulk and blew it up, but failing to receive sufficient encouragement from the French government he retired from the field.

THE UNITED STATES.-From 1810 until the

time of the Civil War there were many experiments in the United States along this line, nearly all of the boats being driven by hand power. During the war efforts in the line of submarines were made on both sides with little practical result. It is true that the Confederate boat succeeded in sinking the Housatonic, but she was a death trap to her crew and was abandoned as a dangerous experiment.

In 1877 John P. Holland. of Paterson, N. J., built in New York a boat with which he experimented on the Passaic River, and finding that he had made important progress, it has been followed by a number of larger and better submarines.

George C. Baker, of Detroit, has invented a boat, the essential feature of which is the use of two screws on a transverse shaft through the center of gravity of the vessel, these screws being susceptible of movement so that the thrust developed by their rotation can be directed at will in a plane at right angles to the shaft. The motive power is electricity from storage batteries.

In 1897 Simon Lake, of Baltimore, was cruising around on the floor of the ocean in a ship which is also a bottom worker, propelling herself on wheels as well as by the screw.

The inventor has abandoned the idea that a submarine boat must be shaped like a cigar or a torpedo, and when upon the surface it looks much like a yacht without masts.

The Argonaut was considered only in the light of an experiment, but the inventor cruised in her over 1,000 miles on the surface and under water, eating and sleeping in her when submerged, and she has prepared the way for larger boats of the same type. It is expected that the Argonauts in time of peace will do a wrecking business, lay stone walls under water, fish for pearls, sponges and treasure. In war it is hoped that they will roll unseen over the bottom of harbors, place a mine under a ship, back away and blow up the enemy, or cut cables under the water and ruin the mine defenses of a foreign foe.

The early Holland boat was 31 feet long by 6 feet in diameter, circular in cross section, and weighed 18 tons when submerged. The motive power was obtained from a petroleum engine. The surface speed was about 8 knots an hour, and the submerged speed 6 knots. One essential feature of this boat is the use of diving rudders on a horizontal shaft at the stern, to produce and maintain submergence.

Another important point is a camera lucida projecting above the water, giving a clear view while the boat is running several feet below the surface. There is also an automatic safety device, by means of which, when a dangerous depth is reached, air is admitted into a bow compartment, and by raising the bow change its course upward.

The United States Naval Department, in pursuance of the provisions contained in the act approved June 10, 1896, as amended by the act approved March 3, 1899, concluded the purchase of the submarine torpedo boat Holland for the sum of $150,000.

The act of June 7, 1900, authorized and directed the Secretary of the Navy "to contract for five submarine boats of the Holland type

of the most improved design at a price not exceeding $170,000 each."

In pursuance of this direction, and of the authorization contained in the act of March 3, 1899 (which latter act provided for two boats), contract was entered into Aug. 25, 1900, with the Holland Torpedo Company for the construction of six submarine torpedo boats of the Holland type at $170,000 each.

The first boat authorized was the Plunger, but it was not satisfactory, therefore the company agreed to take it off the hands of the department and make good all the expenses and advances of the Government in her construction. They are also to construct for the contract price above named a submarine boat of the latest and most approved type, similar to the six above referred to.

The Holland boats which have been ordered are now in process of completion. The Adder, 63 feet 4 inches in length, 11 feet 9 inches in diameter, 120 tons displacement, 160 indicated

ALEXANDER J. CASSATT.

power, 70 indicated horse power; speed on the surface, 8 knots; submerged, 7 knots. Its main engine is a single-screw 4-cylinder Otto gasoline; its main motor is electric waterproof type; gasoline tank capacity, 850 gallons; diameter of conning tower, 21 inches; thickness of armor, 4 inches. It has one torpedo expulsion tube and will carry 5 45 c. m. by 11' 8" Whitehead torpedoes.

The Grampus, the Pike, the Porpoise, the Moccasin and the Shark are duplicates of the above. The contract required that all should be completed on July 25, 1901.

The Holland is somewhat smaller, being only 53 feet 11 inches in length and 10 feet 3 inches in diameter, with a displacement of 74 tons when submerged. Indicated horsepower of main engine, 45; indicated power of main motor, 50.

This boat was purchased April 11, 1900, for $150,000, and is in use at the torpedo station

at Newport, R. I., where she is made a subject of careful investigation and experiment.

It is believed that the boats of this type now about completed will prove superior to the Holland in several important respects. ELIZABETH A. REED, A. M.

CASSATT, ALEXANDER JOHNSON, the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad, is fully committed to the policy of railroad expansion and manifests great energy in promoting the corporate connections which will insure to his road an advantageous control of rates and traffic.

The Pennsylvania Railroad has obtained a controlling voice in the Chesapeake and Ohio, and also bought 200,000 shares of Norfolk and Western, which transaction will give it two directors in that company. These are two of the most important bituminous coal roads, and the three in connection with the co-operative interests of the New York Central will constitute the control of the carrying rates for this important product.

The Pennsylvania has also obtained all necessary interest in the Baltimore and Ohio, placing one of their men at its head.

That the company is willing to pursue still further the policy of controlling Eastern lines is indicated by the program of the stockholders' meeting to increase the capitalization.

Mr. Cassatt was born in Pittsburgh, Dec. 8, 1839; educated at the University of Heidelberg and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. In 1859-61 he was engaged in locating a railroad in Georgia. In 1861 he entered the service of the Pennsylvania road at Altoona as a rodman. He was gradually advanced until he became the general superintendent of the Pennsylvania system and general manager of the lines east of Pittsburgh in 1871-4.

In 1874-80 he was third vice-president; in 1880-82, first vice-president. Like all valuable

men, he is extremely busy, and also prompt in the execution of his manifold duties. He is the president of seven companies and a director in twenty-three, including banks, transportation and trust companies. He works rapidly and effectively, disposing of an immense His grasp

amount of business in a short time. of any proposition or principle is immediate and forcible and his disposition of a matter is final.

Still he finds time for necessary recreation and much of this has been in connection with his fine horses.

He retired from business in 1882 and remained in comparative obscurity for seventeen years, but he was by no means idle. The development of his splendid stock farm at Chester Brook, Berwyn, Pa., claimed a large share of his attention, and the breeding of valuable horses became for the time being his specialty. On June 9, 1899, Mr. Cassatt was elected by the board of directors to the presidency of the Pennsylvania Railroad to succeed Frank Thompson, deceased.

He was not a candidate for the place, but he accepted the position. Being rested in body and mind it was a strong hand which he placed upon the helm and in a very short time the railroad history of the country felt the impress. of his character and personality.

also afforded by the steel decks, which are completely plated from stem to stern. One can hardly imagine any construction more generally perfect, and its success in the conditions it has to meet is assured. The labor of building a ship of so great proportions was necessarily heavy; its nature may be inferred from the fact that the shell plates numbered 1,392, were an inch and a quarter thick, averaged 30 feet by 5 feet, and in some cases weighed four tons. For a task of this magnitude ordinary tools were useless and new and costly appliances had to be provided.

The engines are of the Harland & Wolff quadruple expansion type; the cylinders are 33, 472, 68% and 98 inches in diameter by 5 feet 3 inches stroke. Steam at a pressure of 210 pounds is supplied by eight double-ended boilers, each 15 feet 6 inches by 19 feet 6 inches. She has four masts and between the second and the third are the two smokestacks. Each of these are 16 feet high and 14 feet in diameter. A cable car could run through one of them and have plenty of room on each side.

A great steamship is the most staunch and perfect work turned out by man. She has to contend constantly not only with the power of wind and wave, but also with the vibrations

6

of her own terrific engines. The enormous dimensions of this leviathan of the seas may be better realized when we consider that she is more than twice the length of our great battleships-that her length is 145 feet greater than the height of the Washington Monument and more than double the height of Bartholdi's Statue in New York harbor.

The Celtic was planned to provide accommodations for 2,742 persons, and room could be made for 1,000 more. She carries provisions for her passengers and crew for sixteen days and enough more to keep them alive for months in case of accident. Steamship freight experts claim that she can carry about 12,000 tons' weight. This giantess of the seas is equipped with every known safety appliance.

Her maiden voyage showed that she maintains an even keel in high seas-that she is firm and steady, answering her helm as readily as a ship of one-fourth of her tonnage. There was an absence of the vibration which is felt on smaller boats, and a noticeable absence of sea-sickness.

The Celtic was built by Harland & Wolff for Ismay, Imrie & Co., at a cost of $2,500,000.

COLOMBIA, REPUBLIC OF.-A civil war is raging in the South American Republic, the revolt against the government being led by General Rafael Uribe-Uribe who is said to have more than 20,000 armed men under his command. The established government has about the same force in the field.

Revolutionary movements were begun in Colombia late in 1894, but they met with no substantial success, the revolutionists being generally defeated in the pitched battles which were fought. After a few months they were broken into guerilla bands and continued their warfare by that method throughout the greater part of the year 1895, and after years of threatening, with more or less activity, in 1899 an obstinate movement was begun for the overthrow of President Saclemente, who had been elected the previous year.

General Rafael Uribe-Uribe became the leader, and the war went on with varying fortunes and considerable fierce fighting, especially in the isthmus, until near the close of 1900, when the insurgents met with a defeat which drove Uribe-Uribe to flight. He sought an asylum for the time being in the United States, arriving in New York in February of 1901, but in the spring he returned to his old field of operations.

A desperate battle is said to have been fought at Polo Negro in the latter part of May. The conflict lasted seventeen days and even then there was no decisive victory on either side. The insurgents retired as they were out of ammunition, but the government troops were too badly cut up to pursue them.

Important and successful engagements have been fought by General Herrera at Tuinaco and Barbacos, and other insurgent victories are reported from the southeast portion of the department of Cauca. A great revolutionary army is said to be operating on the Pacific side of Colombia.

Information which came to Agent Guerrera, via Maracaibo, states that Senor Valencia is on his way to Cucuta to take charge of the gov

ernment forces on the frontier, and that at Bogota the merchants, not wishing to handle any more paper money, have closed their stores and that business throughout the country is at a standstill.

On August 24 it was announced that "the Columbian government's forces have been completely defeated by the Colombian revolutionists in the department of Cauca. The revolutionists assert that the whole department is in their hands."

August 6, 1901, the Liberals detained a passenger train for an hour at Matachin and captured some government officials; there was no robbery and no damages, but the point mentioned in the official dispatch is on the line of the Panama railroad and the proposed route of the canal.

The United States is bound by treaty to keep this traffic open to the world; perhaps a delay of an hour would hardly call for action, but the general conditions in Colombia had become so threatening that on August 7 the Navy department at the request of the State department ordered the gunboat Machias to proceed to Colon for the purpose of being on hand in case the interests of American citizens are jeopardized.

In the announcement of the department it was officially stated that "it is deemed needful that a United States war vessel be in the vicinity at this time."

Other ships were afterward detailed for the same service. The battleship Iowa arrived at San Francisco from Puget Sound August 16, and there received orders to proceed to Panama as quickly as possible. The gunboat Ranger has also been sent to that point. The Ranger's orders were transmitted to San Diego on the same date, and were to the effect that she should sail without delay. They will take their position on the west side of the isthmus, while the Machias will be on the east side.

It does not follow because these vessels are sent to Panama that the United States proposes to take part in the troubles of South America and Southern Central America. Indeed, the sending of warships to places where trouble is probable is well recognized as a proper act for a neutral nation, and is by no means an intimation of hostility. But we must keep the traffic open across the isthmus, and the position of our ships will give America the key of the situation in any emergency that might arise. Of course, even European complications are possible, but thus far they are only remotely considered.

The Washington government is proceeding with great caution. Its policy is to preserve the peace of South America and to prevent European aggression. The manner in which this policy will be carried out may become more apparent after the arrival of American warships on both sides of the Isthmus of Panama.

The position of the United States as to maintaining free traffic across the Isthmus of Panama was fully defined in 1885, when extensive naval operations were carried on there. An outbreak somewhat similar to the present one occurred early in that year, and the insurgents captured Panama and burned Aspinwall.

Admiral Jouett arrived at the isthmus on April 10, and at once landed marines and issued orders to open transit across the isthmus. Two armored cars, fitted with howitzers, gatling, and Hotchkiss guns, were sent over the line to keep the transit open.

Another cloud upon the horizon is the fact that the Colombian authorities at Cartagena seized an insurgent agent who had taken refuge on a German ship and wrapped himself in the German flag, still there seems little doubt that the Colombian Government acted within its rights in this instance. The German Government on the 18th of August ordered the cruiser Vineta, which is off the eastern coast of South Africa, to proceed to Venezuelan waters to be in readiness to protect German interests if an emergency should arise.

CAUSES.-The trouble is probably largely caused by the personal ambition of the rival leaders. The insurgents claim, however, that the cause of revolution is the oppression of the government which is in the hands of the conservative party. General Uribe-Uribe says: "They have not governed according to the constitution and while taxing the Liberals will not allow them to be adequately represented in the government. For fifteen years the Liberal party has been deprived of all its rights. I have been the only representative of the party in Congress. We tried every peaceable method to obtain our rights before going to war, but could not get anything from the government. I, as the only representative of the Liberal party made up my mind to fight and I will fight to