RECENT HISTORY.-Besides the Paris Exposition no event occurred in 1900 that marked the year as especially memorable in French history. The part that France played in the Chinese expedition was comparatively unimportant.

The octroi duties on wine, beer, and cider ceased Jan. 1, 1901, and the expected loss of about 42,000,000 francs this year will be met by new taxes on the rental of shops, champagne, oranges and lemons, etc. The Paris octrois in 1900 produced 172,990.575 francs, a surplus of 6,990,575 francs on the estimates. The Paris debt is 2,387,000,000 francs, being increased in 1900 by 173,000,000 francs due to the loan for the Metropolitan Railway.

The indirect taxes for 1900 yielded 2,950,753,000 francs, which was nearly 45,000,000 francs more than in 1899 and 77,000,000 francs more than the estimate. Death and transfer duties increased by 29,000,000 francs over those of the previous year; posts, telegraphs, and telephones by 13,000,000 francs; excise duties by 19,000,000 francs. There were deficits in stamps (4,000,000 francs), sugar (15,000,000 francs), and customs (5,000,000 francs).

The surplus was partly due to the Exposition traffic. In March, 1901, the receipts from indirect taxes fell off 20,000,000 francs.

The bicycle tax brought into the Treasury in 1900 the sum of 5,474,975 francs. The number of bicycles in France increased from 203,026 in 1894 to 987,130 in 1900.

The French Chamber of Deputies met Jan. 8, 1901, and re-elected M. Deschanel President. In the first speech of the session the aged Bonapartist deputy, M. Rauline, alluded to the government bill on religious communities. M. Falliéres was for the third time elected PresiIdent of the Senate.

There was a warm debate on the Associations Bill in the Chamber of Deputies Jan. 14, in which the various phases of the old question of Church and State were discussed. It would be more accurately described as a bill against the religious orders, which are numerous in France and control thousands of schools, convents, etc. Says a Paris correspondent: "They envelop as in a net all the productive forces of the country, and form what might be called a universal syndicate of Clericalism, the object of which is to serve the ends of the vast international association of the Catholic Church." The second clause of the bill, which shows the hostile spirit of the measure, is as follows: "Any association founded on a cause, or for an illicit end, contrary to the laws, to public order, to good manners, to the national unity, and to the form of the government of the Republic, is null and void." The third clause specifies the associations that cannot be formed without authorization: "The associations of which the majority of the members are foreigners, and those having foreign directors, or their seat in a foreign country, the acts of which are of a nature to pervert the normal conditions of the markets for public securities or merchandise . may be dissolved by a decree of the President of the Republic drawn up in a Cabinet Council." The fourth clause is intended to secure full publicity of religious associations in France, and thus to bring them more completely under the law. The tenth clause regulates gifts and be quests to associations, requiring personal property to be invested in bonds bearing the name of the owner. Donations of real estate cannot be received, except under stringent conditions.

The bill was severely condemned by the official organ of the Vatican, and denounced by Leo XIII. as unjust and barbarous.

A statistical volume issued in January reported that the real value of property of religious communities was 1,071,000,000 francs, instead of 486,000,000 francs (the valuation returned to the fiscal department). This statement was challenged by a speaker in the Chamber (Jan. 21), who declared that the returns and income were grossly exaggerated. After a discussion of several weeks the bill passed the Chamber (March 29) by a majority of 303 to 224. "The real interest of the debates," says the Paris correspondent of the London Times (April 1, 1901), "is that they have been but a further stage in that struggle between civil society and the Church, which has lasted since the time of Louis XI. I have my doubts whether the new bill will put an end to this conflict."

As a result of the Associations Bill there has been a widespread exodus of French religious orders-the Benedictines leaving Havre to settle in the Isle of Wight, while the monks of the Grande Chartreuse will emigrate to Tarragona in Spain. The St. Omar Carmelites are to settle in Belgium. The Eudists are to quit Besancon, closing their College of Saint François Xavier. The Order of the Dominicans and others sent in requests for authorization, which puts them under the supervision of government officials. Some of the Dominican nuns went to Holland. Most of the Jesuits and Assumptionists scattered before the three months of grace (July to October) expired. The disposition of their property is a problem requiring tact and judgment on the part of the courts.

The conversion to Roman Catholicism of the famous critic, M. Ferdinand Brunetiere, which was announced in March, produced a sensation. His accession to the Catholic Church is regarded as the most important since the conversion of Newman.

M. Maurice Block, a well-known economist and statistician, died Jan. 9, aged 85. He published several statistical and political works. The mathematician, Charles Hermite, died, Jan. 14. France lost several other notable men this year: Zenobe T. Gramme, of electrical fame, who died Jan. 20; Paul A. Sylvestre, the poet, died Feb. 20; J. C. Cazin, the distinguished painter, died March 27; Charles Boysset, the politician, died May 23.

The eminent orator and statesman, Duc de Broglie, died in Paris Jan. 19, aged 80. He was eulogised by M. Melchior de Vogüé at a meeting of the French Academy Jan. 24.

The death of Queen Victoria called forth many expressions of praise and sympathy by the French press. There were demonstrations of respect in both Chamber and Senate Jan. 24. A long article on King Edward VII. and the relations of France and England appeared in the Paris Débats for Jan. 26. French colonial policy, the writer asserted, ought to be one not of new acquisitions, but of the exploitation of territory already held. Peace between France and England was for the interests of both nations. The same subject was touched on in a speech by Thomas Barclay before the French Arbitration Society (March 25), in which he favored "obligatory arbitration on all matters which may be a cause of dispute between France and Great Britain." The British Chamber of Commerce in Paris also approved a general treaty of arbitration between the two countries.

In January a bill calculated to check duelling was submitted to the Chamber, forbidding the publication of reports of duels under severe penalties.

An important bill, requiring seats for each saleswoman in shops, went into effect Feb. 1. In line with this sort of legislation are the sanitary regulations recommended by the Labor Council of the Ministry of Commerce, providing for the separation of the sexes in shop dormitories, also for a sufficient cubic space of air. A further enactment prohibits the employment of persons under eighteen years of age to sell goods at stalls outside of shops.

The new scale of death duties, which became

law in February, introduces the progressive system of taxing legacies according to the amount-1 per cent. for an inheritance in the direct line not exceeding 2,000 francs, and larger rates for greater sums up to 2% per cent. for amounts over 250,000 francs. The rates on legacies from husband or wife range from 31⁄2 to 7 per cent.; and are still higher on inheritances from distant relatives.

There was a strike on the Metropolitan Railway in the latter part of January because of the dismissal of 50 men by the company. Later the weavers and sawyers of Merville were on strike and committing acts of violence. The long strike of lacemakers at Calais ended Feb. 7. The strikers in the ladies' tailors' workshops demanded the abolition of piecework, an eight hours' day, and a minimum wage of 10 francs a day. A serious collision took place between the military and the strikers of the iron works at Chalon-sur-Saône (in February); arrests were made and soldiers were attacked with stones. Other strikes-of coal miners, dockers, etc.-were declared. The Marseilles strike of dockers crippled several manufacturing companies and greatly interfered with shipping. Work was assumed under the protection of hussars and gendarmes and rioting followed. It was reported March 29 that more than 3,600 dockers went to work.

A session of the Chamber of Deputies (March 8) was devoted to a discussion of the strikes, and various reforms were suggested, such as eight hours for the miners' working day and other changes.

The slow progress of the labor movement in France was dwelt upon by M. Barthou in an article in the Nouvelle Revue (April 1), in which he advocated compulsory membership of trades unions. Out of nearly 5,000,000 employes in factories and shops, he claimed that only 492,000 belong to labor organizations.

The miners' congress at Lens (April 13) resolved on a general strike if within six months the government does not secure for them the eight hours' day, a minimum rate of wages, and pensions of 2 francs a day after 25 years' labor. Of the 162,000 men employed in French mines only 47,134 voted on the strike question. The vote for a general strike was 28,038; against, 18,096. As a result of the referendum, the strike at the Montceau coal mines came to an end May 6, having lasted 105 days. The Chamber of Deputies voted 100,000 francs to aid the families of the strikers.

The Paris correspondent of the London Economist (July 20, 1900), makes some suggestive observations on the increasing number of strikes in France and the results. "Strikes in France," he says, "have increased during the last four years in an alarming proportion, notwithstanding the frequent legislative measures for the amelioration of the situation of the working classes, or perhaps because of such measures, which invariably tend to strengthen the power of trade unions of workmen and weaken the authority of employers. A report issued by the Labor Bureau in France shows that the number of strikes in 1900 was 902. comprising 222,714 hands, male or female, and involving a loss of 3,760,577 days' labor. The similar returns for 1899 gave only 740 strikes, 176,826 hands, and 3,550,734 days' work. In

1898, the number of strikes were only 368, in which 82,065 hands took part; and in 1897, 365 and 68,875. The average number of the years 1897 and 1898 more than doubled in 1899, and nearly tripled in 1900. The results of the strikes in 1900 were that in less than 25 per cent., or 205, with 24,216 hands, the strikers were successful; 360, with 140,358 hands, ended by a compromise; and in 337 cases, interesting 50,140 workers, they were defeated. Of the 932 strikes, 631 concerned only a single firm, company, or manufactory. Those that extended to two to 100 establishments numbered 263; the most widespread, leading to the suspension of work in more than 100 establishments, were those of the bakers at Toulon, carriers at Bordeaux, carriage painters in Paris, tulle makers at Calais, shoemakers, bakers, and carmen at Marseilles, and laundresses in Paris and the environs. In 580 strikes the motive was a demand for increase of pay, and of these 113 were successful; 249 compromised, and 218 failed. Of those strikes 138 were in textile trades, 109 in building, 105 in transports, and 51 in metal trades. Of 66 strikes against reductions of wages, 13 failed. The Labor Department was not in possession of information as to the loss of wages from all the strikes, but in the cases of 508 the pay not earned amounted to 9,520,953 francs, from which it infers that the total loss amounted to about 15,000,000 francs. Prosecutions for acts of violence took place on the occasion of 53 strikes, and led to 422 condemnations to fines or imprisonment."

The Budget for 1902, submitted to the Chamber March 29, is called "the greatest of all budgets," amounting to $720,000,000, an increase of $15,000,000 over that of 1901 and of $26,000,000 over that of 1900. The estimated increase of expenditure is 43,000,000 francs, and the estimated increase of revenue is 35,000,000 francs, leaving a deficit to be provided for. The situation is one calling for serious thought and careful management of national and municipal finances. The receipts from indirect taxes during the first six months of the year fell short of the Budget estimate by $10,700,000. It is expected that the expense for the Chinese expedition, some $16,000,000, will be wiped out by the indemnity.

Before the adjournment for the Easter recess (March 30-May 14) the Minister of Public Works presented plans "of a vast scheme of improvements and constructions in the inland navigable canals and rivers and the seaports." The greater part of the total cost, 61,000,000 francs, is for canals. One is to connect the Loire with the Rhone, and one from the Rhone to Marseilles. The works will not be completed for fifteen years.

The quinquennial census was taken March 23. The result showed that the population of France has been nearly stationary the last five years. The increase in Algeria has been 415,000 since 1896. Marseilles has increased in population by 47,000; Nice, 19,000; Havre, 11,000; and Brest, 9,000. Lyons has lost 63,000. Paris (with suburbs) grew from 2,411,000 to 2,660,000. Outside of the department of the Seine the augmentation of inhabitants was small (only 38,000). Provisional returns of the census give 38,641,333 as the total population,

an increase of only 123,358 since 1896. During the last half-century the population has increased (in round numbers) from 35,000,000 to 38,000,000, while neighboring countries have grown rapidly.

The rareness of marriage, the rareness of large families, the expensive habits of French women in dress, and other causes are assigned as explanations of the slow growth of the population. The discouragement of foreign immigration is also a factor. The mass of the peasants are industrious and thrifty, and yet it is said that they cannot support families of more than two children. The son inherits the paternal holding, while the daughter gets her dowry. These conditions make for a slow numerical increase.

On April 9 President Loubet visited Nice on his way to attend the Toulon festivities. Here he met the Russian Admiral Birileff and Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria. He was received with hearty demonstrations at Toulon (April 10), and salutes were fired by the Italian warships present. The naval spectacle was grand. At the banquet toasts were proposed by President Loubet and the Duke of Genoa. The occasion led to a great deal of speculation respecting the cordial understanding of France with Italy and Russia and its bearing on the Dreibund. (See article on AUSTRIA, p. 306, and ITALY, p. 353.) The Italian ships departed April 14, and President Loubet set out for Paris April 15.

A remarkable speech was delivered (June 6) by the Italian ambassador, Count Tornielli, on the affinities of France and Italy, which seem destined, he held, "to co-operate in the economic future of the world. Prejudices had disappeared as by enchantment on perception of the reality of interests, and the two nations were now acting together on the broad highway on which they met other nations, all advancing in different ways by the sole means of peace and civilization toward the common goal."

On April 18 the eminent critic and professor. M. Emile Faguet, was received as a member of the French Academy in the place of the late M. Cherbuliez. The great chemist, M. Berthelot, who is secretary of the Academy of Sciences, was received into the French Academy to succeed M. Bertrand.

On May 26 the learned historian, M. Fagniez of the Sorbonne, was elected a member of the Academy of Moral Sciences in place of the late Duc de Broglie.

The Marquis de Vogué was elected (May 30) to the French Academy to succeed the Duc de Broglie. (See page 51.) M. Rostand, the dramatist, succeeded the late Henri de Bornier. The International Association of Learned Societies met in Paris April 16-23. Delegates from eighteen scientific bodies were present.

The Paris Salon was opened April 21 with great crowds of visitors. The works of Edwin Abbey and other American artists attracted much attention.

On April 28 the former Premier, M. Méline, made a speech attacking the policy of the present Ministry. The Waldeck-Rousseau Cabinet. now in power, has survived since the summer of 1899, a period much longer than the existence of any other Ministry in the history of the Republic.

The third annual Socialist Congress was opened at Lyons May 26. Next year's Congress will meet at Tours.

The ex-Queen Ranavalo, of Madagascar, reached Paris May 30 to remain a month. She. was not permitted to call on President Loubet or meet him until the last day of her visit. After a round of sight-seeing, she left Marseilles (July 29) for Algeria, her place of banishment.

The Moorish envoys arrived at Marseilles June 15 and were hospitably entertained. Later they were received with marks of respect by President Loubet, and after complimentary speeches they stayed to luncheon.

Soon after the meeting of the French Parliament in May the Workmen's Pensions Bill was introduced, which occasioned considerable discussion, leading to no definite conclusion for lack of data as to the outlay needed and the requisite sum to be allowed for a pension. Labor questions occupied the attention of the deputies and the senators until they adjourned (July 6).

There was a lively session of the Chamber June 14, when the Arab rising in Algeria was discussed. The Algerian deputy, M. Drumont, was censured for using offensive language.

The intention of the Minister of Finance to comprise an income-tax in the estimates for 1902 aroused so much opposition that he abandoned the idea for the present. The receipts from indirect taxes for the first six months of 1901 showed a loss of 53,425,200 franes on the estimates. The decrease in customs duties amounted to 30,164,000 francs; in excise, 20,037,000 francs. Out of a revenue of 3,423,000,000 francs, only 575,000,000 francs is raised by direct taxation.

The trial of Count de Lur-Saluces, who wished to upset the Republic, ended June 26 with a sentence of banishment for five years.

The automobile race from Paris to Berlin, June 27-29, aroused extraordinary enthusiasm. The race was won by M. Fournier, who made the 742 miles in 16 hours and 6 minutes.

M. Jules Cambon addressed the Alliance Française of Paris (Aug. 1) on his trip to the Mississippi Valley in May and June.

The French people were deeply stirred by the news of President McKinley's assassination, and there were many expressions of sincere sympathy.

President Loubet, accompanied by his Prime Minister, M. Waldeck-Rousseau, left Paris on the morning of Sept. 17 for Dunkirk, to await the coming of the Czar and Czarina of Russia. The town was brilliantly decorated and filled with a great crowd of sightseers. The next morning the President and some of his ministers set out from Dunkirk on board a gunboat to meet the Russian Imperial Yacht. They were cordially received by the Czar and a naval review followed. After landing, a luncheon was given and a welcoming speech delivered by President Loubet, who departed with his royal guests by special train for Compiègne, where they arrived at 8 o'clock in the evening. The words spoken by the heads of the two nations conveyed more than mere compliments; they expressed only the simple truth concerning the close union of the

two countries known as the Franco-Russian alliance.

The next day President Loubet and his guests went by train to Reims, where they witnessed the maneuvers of the French army.

In the evening they returned to Compiègne, where the Czar and Czarina occupied the famous chateau of Napoleon III. Here they rested the next day, and on Sept. 21 the imperial company took the train for Kiel.

Much as the papers made of the Czar's visit, its significance was probably not exaggerated. Some writers go so far as to say that the French Republic exists by the grace of the Russian ruler. Time will disclose the extent of his influence on French public policy.

The vintage for 1901 is estimated at 55,000,000 hectoliters, against 67,000,000 in 1900 and 98,000,000 in 1899. The wheat crop for 1901 is estimated at 106,204,600 hectoliters, against 109,025,960 hectoliters in 1900; exclusive of Algeria, the crop cannot exceed 95,000,000 hectoliters (261,345,000 bushels). It is thought that France will have to buy 60,000,000 bushels of foreign wheat.

For details respecting the Turko-French dispute, see article on TURKEY, page 543.

Articles on the French Colonies will appear later.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-J. E. C. Bodley, "France" (revised ed., 1899); E. H. Sears, "An Outline of Political Growth in the Nineteenth Century" (1900); A. L. Lowell, "Governments and Parties in Continental Europe," Vol. I.; No. 2649, Annual Series, British Diplomatic and Consular Reports, "Finances of France for the Year 1901;" U. S. Consular Reports, January, February, March, May, July, 1901; New York "Weekly Journal of Commerce and Commercial Bulletin," April 22 and August 26, 1901; London "Board of Trade Journal," 1901; London "Economist," 1901.

EUGENE PARSONS.

GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON.-In case of the death of both President Roosevelt and Secretary Hay during the present administration, Mr. Gage, the secretary of the treasury, would succeed to the Presidency.

Mr. Gage was born in Deruyter, N. Y., June 28, 1836. He comes of English parentage, being a descendant of Thomas Gage, who came from England about 1640 and settled in Massachusetts.

He was the son of Eli and Mary Judson Gage. They removed to Rome, N. Y., in 1848. The boy of fourteen here received academic advantages, but in four years he left school to avail himself of a position in the postoffice at Rome. In 1854 he became a clerk in the Oneida Central Bank of Rome, and a year later went to Chicago, where he at first worked in a lumber yard. He drifted around a little after this, but in 1858 he obtained permanent employment in the Merchants' Saving Loan and Trust Co. He was afterward promoted by degrees until he became the cashier of that institution. In 1868 he became identified with the First National Bank of Chicago, as its cashier, afterward becoming vice-president and general manager and in 1891 was elected president of the bank.