personnel of the navy is concerned, "the spirit of duty and sacrifice reigns from the top to the bottom of the service." "The defects of the navy are due solely to civilian neglect ashore." And of these defects the chief, according to the Spectator's résumé of the League report, was that "the Lords of the Admiralty are overworked, overwhelmed with detail, have no time to think, and that there is no department corresponding to the German General Staff, where the quality prevision is exercised at leisure and while England is at peace.' In the discussion on this manifesto which took place in the House of Commons, the government took the position that although there were only ten British war ships at present in the Mediterranean squadron, of which one was always on the retired list, yet it was absurd to state that in times of peace the British vessels in the Mediterranean should always be equal to the war vessels of any other two European powers. On mobilizing for war, the British Mediterranean fleet could be largely increased, and in any event it was untenable to take the point of view that the Mediterranean constituted a strategical unit by itself. On the first of April, 1901, the effective fighting fleet of Great Britain as compared to the other principal nations was as follows: Great Britain, 45 battleships built and 14 building; Germany, 19 battleships built and 9 building; France, 30 built and 4 building, and Russia, 17 built and 8 building. Cruisers, Great Britain, 129 built and 20 building; Germany, 23 built and 8 building; France, 40 built and 15 building, and Russia, 14 built and 11 building. Besides these, Great Britain had built 17 coast defense vessels, Germany 19, France 14, and Russia 15.

Agriculture. The general average of production of the staple cereal crops in Great Britain for 1901, except in the case of wheat, was lower than in 1900, and below the average of the ten years preceding. This reduction was shown both in arceage and in average yield per acre, except in the case of wheat, and even in this staple there was a falling off in the number of acres planted. Weather conditions were unfavorable. Scotland maintained a better average in per-acre returns than either England or Wales. The following table shows the officially estimated production of the principal cereals in 1901, as compared to 1900, with a comparison of the yield per acre to the average for the ten years preceding:

In contrast to the decline of acreage in cereal crops, the areas under orchards have steadily increased from 224,116 acres in 1897 to 234,660 in 1901. The number of acres under clover and rotation grasses for 1901 was 4,856,387, and under permanent pasturage 16,827,249, as compared with 4,759,158 and 16,729,035 for 1900.

Mineral Production.-Definite statistics as to the production of coal in Great Britain in 1901 are not available owing to the difficulty of obtaining figures on the home consumption. But the most reliable official estimate stated the total as nearly 225,000,000 tons, the figure for 1900. The export in 1901 was 43,766,552 tons, as against 46,098,228 tons in 1900. Of the 1901 total of exports, 808,061 tons were in the form of coke, 1,080,146 tons briquettes, and 41,878,345 tons ordinary export coal. The falling off in the amount of export was due to the imposition of a coal export tax of a shilling a ton, and the relative smallness of the decrease is explained by the fact that certain concessions were made to the shippers. In December, 1901, the government appointed a royal commission to investigate the coal supply of Great

Britain. Mining wages declined considerably during 1901, in sympathy with the fall in the price of the mined product. In Wales, where the automatic sliding scale prevails, wages fell 8 per cent. with every fall in price of one shilling a ton. Taking this as a basis, and considering that the price of export coal fell from 16.51 shillings per ton in 1900, to 13.91 shillings in 1901, it would be fair to say that there was a reduction of 20 per cent. from the scale of 1900.

per ton.

Speaking broadly, the iron and steel trade of Great Britain in 1901 suffered in imports of ore, in exports of iron and steel, and in the amount of finished product. The imports of ore, which came from twenty different countries, amounted to 5,546,845 tons, being a decrease from 1900 of 751,118 tons, or 12 per cent. The price of ore in November was 15.25 shillings per ton, against last year's average of 14.67 shillings The value and amount of the finished iron and steel and machinery imported into Great Britain was £10,259,056 for 923,677 tons, against £9,284,436 for 799,674 tons in 1900. The early part of the year saw a revival in the manufacture, due to the decline of wages, railway charges, and the price of coke, but it fell off again. The exports of iron and steel of every kind amounted to 2,900,100 tons, of a total value of £25,305,673, a decrease from 1900 of 640,589 tons, of a value of £,687,002. These exports were made up of 839,223 tons of pig iron, 574,656 tons of rails, and 1,486,221 of machinery and other forms. The total production of iron and steel was 8,200,000 tons, representing a decrease from 1900 of 708,570 tons. Most of the decrease was in steel. The iron ore lifted was about the same in quantity as in 1900, that is, slightly over 14,000,000 tons. One significant fact in connection with the export trade in iron and steel is that in 1901 practically nothing was sent to Germany, cne of Great Britain's best customer before. On the other hand, Germany actually shipped some thousands of tons of ro.. ore to Great Britain.

Ship-Building-The total number of steamships and sailing vessels of the world of 100 tons register and over was estimated by Lloyd's Register for 1901 at 29,091, and their total tonnage at about 30,600,510. Of this total the United Kingdom had 13,656,161 tons, and the colonies, 1,052,045, giving a total British tonnage of 14,708,206. The United States came next to Great Britain in the aggregate amount of their shipping tonnage, having 3,077,344 tons, and Germany followed with 2,905,782 tons. But if the steamships alone of the world were considered, the United States fell to third place; the total estimated steam tonnage in the world being 24,008,883 tons, of which the United Kingdom, together with her colonies possesses 12,739,180, Germany 2,417,410, and the United States, 1.704,156. During 1900, 692 ships with a tonnage of 1,442,471 were launched in the United Kingdom, of which 28 were sailing vessels with a tonnage of 9,871. In addition to this, there were launched 29 warships with 68,364 tons displacement, of which 20 vessels with a tonnage of 35,050 were for the British government. Of the total construction in the United Kingdom in 1900, 1,109,165 tons, or nearly 77 per cent. were intended for the trade of the United Kingdom. Of the remaining vessels, Germany supplied the largest number of orders, aggregating 103,625 tons; Austria-Hungary followed with orders for 80,426 tons; Holland, for 24,403 tons; France, for 21,034 tons, and Spain for 19.038 tons. The net increase in the tonnage constructed in Great Britain in 1900 over that of 1899 was about 220,000. According to a writer in the Financial Review, there were 680 vessels built in 1901 with an aggregate tonnage of 1,736,708 tons, of which 41 vessels with a displacement of 211,969 tons were warships. On the other hand, it is expected that shipbuilding for the year 1902 will show a large decrease, and an indication of this and of the present glut in the shipping market is shown by the fact that freights had fallen by the end of the year so that they were hardly more than half what they had been in 1900.

Trade and Commerce.-The trade of Great Britain for the year 1901 was on the whole satisfactory, especially when it is considered that industrial conditions in Europe were gravely disturbed, thus tending to reduce England's export trade, while the continuance of the South African War and the large government loans necessitated by it reduced the amount of capital in the country available for mercantile transactions. The exports for the year were £280.498.889, a decline of £10,673.107 from 1900. The imports also showed a slight decrease, their total value in 1901 being £522,238.986, a decline during the year of £836,177. The largest declines in exports were in raw materials, principally coal, the total decline in raw materials being £8,501,365. Manufactures of metals also showed the large decrease of £5,933,147 from the preceding year. On the other hand, articles of food and drink were exported to a value exceeding by £1,263,160 the total values of 1900. Probably the most interesting feature of the year in manufactures was that connected with the coal situation. Owing largely doubtless to the South African War and the extraordinary demand for coal both for the transports in the government service and for domestic industries manufacturing materials of war, the price of coal rose so high in the latter part of 1899 and in 1900 as seriously to handicap general manufactures. It was also alleged that the coal dealers were taking advantage of the necessities of the

government to coin excessive profits at the expense of the country. For this season, the shilling export tax on coal advocated by the chancellor of the exchequer and sanctioned by Parliament (see paragraph Customs and Excise Taxes) met with very general approval throughout the country, although the coal dealers complained bitterly that they could not export coal at a profit under it. Nevertheless events proved that the export tax did not seriously interfere with coal exports, the lessened exports for 1901 being readily accounted for by the lessened ability of Europe to buy coal during the year. On the other hand, the fall in domestic prices of coal caused by the export tax tended to stimulate increased production in industries where the price of the products depended largely upon the cost of fuel. The iron and steel industries during the year were hardly satisfactory. Exports of iron and steel of every kind for the year amounted to 2,900,100 tons, showing falling off from the previous year of 640,589 tons, with a decline of value of £6,687,002. As regards finance, the great interest of the year in Great Britain centred around the borrowings of the British government for purposes of the South African War. In February, £11,000,000 of 3 per cent. bonds were negotiated and in April, an issue of £60,000,000 was made. These bonds were all heavily over-subscribed, although the price of consols fell to 92, whereas it had been 114 before the war. At the same time that the British consols fell, the stocks of several of the largest British railways fell also. This was partially owing no doubt to the fact that so much of the country's capital was being tied up directly or indirectly in industries connected with the war, and partly also to the fact that on account of the increase in the price of coal and materials, the British railways were forced to cut their dividends heavily. How heavily some of the largest railway stocks declined may be seen from the fact that London and North Western fell from 180 to 158, North Eastern, from 172 to 149, Great Western, from 169 to 131, and Lancashire and Yorkshire, from 132 to 104. Notwithstanding these declines, however, both in consols and in railway stocks, which have habitually been looked upon as most stable investments, financial conditions in England were very little disturbed throughout the year, and there was no stringency in the money market.

In the following table are given the total exports and imports of Great Britain for the calendar year 1901 and also the decrease or increase of each class of exports or imports from the preceding year. This table has been compiled from the returns made by the British Board of Trade.

IMPORTS FROM FOREIGN COUNTRIES AND BRITISH POSSESSIONS, 1901.

EXPORTS OF BRITISH AND IRISH PRODUCE AND MANUFACTURES, 1901.

353

Great Britain.

Total
Increase

EXPORTS OF FOREIGN AND COLONIAL MERCHANDISE, 1901.

£67,846,843
4,665,085

The following table shows for ten years the imports, exports, and total commerce of Great Britain and the United States:

*The figures given for the imports and exports of Great Britain are calculated only in round numbers and may each vary from the correct amount to a maximum of $3,000, but the variation is usually considerably less. The figures for the total commerce of Great Britain are believed to be exact.

The figures given for exports do not include the exports of merchandise produced outside of the country, that is, merchandise which has been imported to the country and is then re-shipped and exported. In the case of Great Britain the amount of merchandise so re-shipped has averaged yearly since 1890 nearly $300,000,000. In the case of the United States re-shipped merchandise has increased by fairly equal amounts from $13,000,000 in 1890 to $25,000,000 in 1900.

The figures given for total commerce are found by adding together the figures for imports and exports, but the exports are here taken to include both the exports of merchandise of domestic production and the exports of merchandise of foreign production, that is, both true exports and re-shipments.

The question of German, and more especially, of American competition with British manufactures which was first seriously considered in 1900 was discussed with no less interest in 1901. Notwithstanding the fact that the total commerce of Great Britain, with a population hardly more than half that of the United Staes, and a counry incomparably inferior to the United States in natural resources, enjoys nearly double the total commerce of the United States, there were loud complaints in the English press during the year to the effect, not merely that Great Britain's commercial supremacy would be taken from her, but that it had already been taken from her, and that Great Britain must henceforth follow the industrial lead of other nations. That Great Britain can no longer produce either coal or steel and iron manufactures to the extent of those produced in the United States and that her exports of these articles must fall behind those of the United States may be readily admitted; but that any marked decadence is shown in British industries taken as a whole was seriously questioned by many. On the other hand, it was nowhere denied that both British employers and employees might in several particulars copy American patterns with great advantage to themselves; for from a long array of undisputed facts, it appears that labor in England is sadly lacking in mobility, and capital in initiative. Owing largely to the fact that workmen in Great Britain are minutely subdivided in trades and trade unions and that each trade union has very strict regulations for the admission of apprentices and the government of journeymen, English laborers find it very difficult to shift from one kind of work to another. A sort of caste system appears to be the foundation of the whole industrial situation; so that each man, finding it of extreme difficulty to force an entrance into any other trade than that in which he has been bred, demands that his particular kind of work in any trade shall not be curtailed. Therefore, the laborer bitterly resents the introduction of labor-saving machines which tend to destroy any subdivision of manual labor in a particular trade or to diminish the number of workmen required in that particular subdivision. Acting upon the principle that there is just about so much work to do and so many men to do it, the laborer opposes any addition to production per capita. That is to say, while in the United States the unions insist only that wages shall not be cut below a certain point, but concede that more work will be done if the wages are correspondingly raised, the British workman only demands a minimum wage and will not allow his fellow workmen to receive more money for more work done. Similarly, there seems to be no doubt that while the workmen have in many cases dissuaded employers from introducing labor-saving machines, the British employer himself looks with a certain fondness upon the antiquated instruments of production which his father or grandfather used, and is loth to throw them away. The

principle adopted in all large American industrial establishments that no matter how expensive the present machinery is, other machinery must at once be substituted if it will pay a higher return on the capital invested, is not readily conceded in Great Britain. All told, however, there is stated by many writers to be something ridiculous both in the complaints made by Great Britain that its commercial victories have departed from it, as well as in the boasts of some American writers that Great Britain may no longer be considered as a serious obstacle to the progress of American industries abroad,

As in previous years, much comment was excited in the United States by the fact that British imports were so vastly in excess of British exports. How could a nation, it was asked, continually buy when it does not sell without eventually going into bankruptcy? While this question was not satisfactorily answered, it might be stated as a partial explanation to which measure many similar facts could be added that the capital in London alone employed in foreign banking enterprises in the East approximates £200,000,000.

HISTORY.

Parliament.-The first session of the 27th Parliament (an extra session) met on December 3, 1900, in order to vote the government further supplies for the prosecution of the war. It then adjourned on December 14 until February 14, 1901, but was reconvened on January 23, 1901, on the demise of the Queen, in pursuance of the law requiring Parliament to meet immediately on the death of the sovereign. Members of both Houses took the oath of allegiance to the new sovereign on January 24, and on January 25, a message having been received from King Edward announcing the Queen's death, a message of condolence was voted by Parliament. Adjournment was then taken until February 14, when the King, accompanied by Queen Alexandra, journeyed in pageant form from Buckingham Palace to Westminster and opened Parliament in person. In the message from the throne, the King stated that the cessation by the Boers of the guerrilla warfare which they were maintaining would be as much to their own interests as to Great Britain's, as until that time it would be impossible to establish in the South African colonies institutions securing equal rights to all the white inhabitants and protection and justice to the native population. The King stated that, notwithstanding the death of the Queen, the establishment of the Australian Commonwealth would be commemorated by the opening of its first Parliament by the Duke of Cornwall and York. With regard to new legislation, the Crown stated that bills would be laid before Parliament for regulating the voluntary sale of land to tenants in Ireland, for amending and consolidating the factory and workshop acts, for amending the law relating to education, and the public health acts, and for the prevention of drunkenness. With reference to the new civil list which the demise of the Crown made necessary, the King announced that he unreservedly relinquished his hereditary revenues as had his predecessor, Queen Victoria. The session of 1901 was very similar to that of 1900, in that it consisted largely of discussions upon the Boer War and of collateral questions arising therefrom, including the question of the best means of defraying the war expenses. In so far, however, as concerned measures of domestic reform, the session was disappointing, few acts of importance being passed. The opposition as a party showed even less coherence than in the previous session. On the other hand, the Conservatives showed such extraordinary negligence that on several occasions their majority was unpleasantly reduced, and on the voting of an amendment to the consolidated factory law, they were openly defeated. Besides the civil list act, the voting of supplies for the army and navy and the army reorganization bill, which are treated in separate paragraphs, the measures which appeared to occupy the greatest amount of time were those connected with royalty and the approaching coronation. After the opening of Parliament, a letter signed by thirty Catholic peers was presented, praying that the King's declaration, in which he was required, by existing law, to stigmatize as “idolatrous and superstitious" the belief of his twelve million Catholic subjects might be in some way modified. Committees were appointed to this end by both Houses, and various amendments were proposed in order that the King, while still unequivocally asserting his position as head of the established church, might yet not give offense to those of a contrary belief. But to the proposed amendments the established church objected that they did not sufficiently safeguard the Protestants, while at the same time the Catholics maintained that the offensiveness of the declaration was not removed. And in the end the declaration was allowed to remain as before. An act receiving royal approval on August 17 permitted the King to alter his royal title in his own discretion, so as to give recogrition to his British possessions beyond the seas. In accordance with this act, King Edward adopted a complete title, as follows: "Edward VII., by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India." Other events of the