said, believes in the immutability of the species notwithstanding a position which, we think, he hardly makes sufficiently clear to produce conviction. J. E. TAYLOR.

REMARKS ON POLYTHOA INVESTING THE GLASS-ROPE SPONGE.

BY F. KITTON.

SINCE the publication of my paper on Hyalonema in the last number of SCIENCE-GOSSIP, I have had an opportunity of making further examination of the curious parasitic growth generally found upon the anchoring spicula ["the Glass-rope "]. I stated in my previous remarks that I had found, on the Rev. J. Crompton's specimens, the Polythoa investing

the Polythoa. My previous observation had been made on the forms obtained by boiling a portion of the rope and Polythoa in nitric acid. This of course not only separated the spicula imbedded in the coriaceous substance of the Polythoa, but also the various forms of spicula interwoven in the interstices of the Glass-rope.

The examination of the Polythoa after soaking in water for some days, revealed the presence of minute grains of sand, showing slight traces of

arrangement: this is most conspicuous on the ridges of the tubercles. After the destruction of the animal matter by nitric acid, the siliceous remains consist of sand and spicula in about equal proportions.

A careful examination of this parasite in a living state, or a specimen preserved in spirit, is necessary for a complete elucidation of this very remarkable organism.

BEES IN THE HIMALÈH MOUNTAINS.

LI

ITTLE is known relative to the domestication of bees in these mountains, even by those long resident on the spot, and much interest has of late been evinced in many quarters, notably by the late Mr. Woodbury, of Exeter, in an attempt to import and acclimatize the Apis dorsata, or wild bee, hereinafter alluded to, on account of its greater range of feeding and superior productiveness. I make, therefore, no apology for republishing the remarks of that careful and eminent traveller Moorcroft, as recorded in his "Ladakh, and Resources of the Hills," vol. i. cap. ii. page 51:-"The domestic bee is known by the name of mahra, mohri, and mari; it is not much above half the size of that of Europe, but is very industrious and mild-tempered.

*

"The wild beet is termed bhaonra, a name by which the people of the plains designate the humble bee; but it is not half the bulk of that insect, though larger than the domestic bee of Europe. It is of a darker colour generally, and has larger and broader wings. Its temper is irascible, and sting venomous. It commonly builds its nest under projecting ledges of rock, overhanging steep mural precipices, in a situation almost inaccessible to bears and men. The hive [comb ?] contains a large quantity of both wax and honey. The latter, if gathered before the month of Bhadra (about August), is fully equal to that of the domestic bee; but in that and the following month it is said to produce intoxication followed by stupefaction. The effect is, with some probability, ascribed to the bees feeding on the flower of a species of aconite, which is in bloom in Bhadra and Asarh (September), and which, grow

Apis nigrocincta, or Indica. † Apis dorsata.

ing high up in the mountains, is beyond the flight of the domestic bee."

All this I can confirm, having travelled in the parts of the hills where this wild bee abounds. It is also found in the plains, everywhere in the North-west Provinces, and has been described by me in a paper on "Indian Hymenoptera," in the Transactions of the Zoological Society of London, in June, 1869.

Here, however, the cells are seen depending in huge black masses on the lower sides of the larger boughs of forest-trees, and the natives are in general afraid to approach them.

They are so wicked that I fear they could never be domesticated, although the attempt was once made with very partial success by General Hearsay. Should the readers of SCIENCE-GOSSIP wish it, I will send the report of that experiment, cut out from the Exeter paper, for their amusement and information.

I

C. HORNE, F.Z.S., late B. C. S. Newcome, January 29, 1872.

CURIOUS HABITS OF SWALLOWS.

HAVE imbibed many of the tastes of Gilbert White; but that which engrosses me most, and which I may call my hobby, is the natural history of the Swallow tribe. I have read that swallows will "mob" and put to flight a kestrel hawk. This I was rather sceptical of until lately, when my doubts were removed by that most convincing of proofs,-ocular demonstration. I had gone to see an old castle in the neighbourhood, which was built on the only hill for miles round, and was therefore tolerably certain to be the haunt of a pair or two of hawks. I accordingly kept my eyes open, in the expectation of seeing one, and I was soon rewarded by the appearance over the brow of the hill of a bird, which, by its graceful poise and the hovering motion of its wings, I knew to be a kestrel. His active little enemies, the swallows, a flock of whom were disporting themselves close by, had been as quick to see him as I. These at once advanced to meet the intruder, and, with the utmost audacity, brushed past him in all directions, one from one quarter and one from another, each wheeling after it had swept by and returning to the charge, while the hawk made futile dashes now and again, but was always too late to do any damage to his nimble little opponents. At last, tired of waging an unequal war, and obliged to own himself conquered, he beat a hasty retreat. He was not, however, allowed to get off so easily, but was followed up by his victorious foes; and the apparent mystery of such little birds proving more than a match for such a formidable-looking antagonist, armed literally cap-à-pie as he was, was quite cleared

up; for as he made off, evidently at his best speed, the swallows, with the utmost ease, when left at an apparently hopeless distance behind, fetched him up, then passed him (in what appeared to me most dangerous proximity), wheeled round, met him on their return journey, and then, taking another sharp turn to the right-about, repassed him, and continued repeating these manœuvres a dozen times or more. The solution of the mystery lay in their extraordinary powers of flight. The way in which the swallows made straight for him, apparently bent on a personal encounter, and then, when the kestrel was reckoning on clutching them in his talons, gliding away at a tangent, was, though no doubt tantalizing to the hawk, none the less amusing and interesting to me. To crown all, when the others had left off the chase, presumably not thinking it worth their while to pursue any further, it was curious to watch one solitary individual carry it on alone with such seemingly unrelenting vigour that he seemed actuated by feelings of the direst revenge. However that might be, the swallow certainly effectually prevented the discomfited foe from pausing in his enforced retreat. I watched both until pursued and pursuer vanished from my sight. I dare say the little swallow continued the pursuit until he had wearied and exhausted the hawk. On another occasion I witnessed a little incident which has, to the best of my knowledge, the merit of novelty; and so I hope you will excuse my telling it. I saw a hare running across a large park by the wayside, and was looking about to see what had started it, but could not imagine what it could be, as neither man nor dog was in sight. It started again (for it had stopped and sat in a listening attitude), and then I saw that the disturbers were a flight of swallows, who were following it up like a pack of hounds; now one and now another skimming past the hare's ears along the ground, while the poor timid creature was putting its best foot foremost; but all to no purpose, for its relentless tormentors seemed to take pleasure in its fright, and to enjoy the sport of teasing it. I followed the little group until an undulation of the park hid it from my view, and was greatly surprised to see the dexterity with which the swallows calculated their distance so as to impress the hare with the idea they were flying straight at her, and yet, when they were on the point of dashing against her, took a sharp turn and swept off in a curve, to renew the attack again the next moment. I will close my epistle with an anecdote related by the Rev. Philip Skelton, as having come under his own observation, which seems to be appropriate, and which, I believe, will be new to most, if not all, the readers of this paper. I give it in his own words: "I have entertained a great affection and some degree of esteem for swallows ever since I saw a remarkable instance of their sense and

humour played off upon a cat which had, upon a very fine day, seated herself upon the top of a gatepost, as if in contemplation; when ten or a dozen swallows, knowing her to be an enemy, took it into their heads to tantalize her in a manner which showed a high degree not only of good sense but of humour. One of these birds, coming from behind her, flew close by her ear, and she made a snap at it with her paw, but it was too late. Another swallow, in five or six seconds, did the same, and she made the same unsuccessful attempt to catch it. This was followed by a third, and so on to the number just mentioned; and every one, as it passed, seemed to set up a laugh at the disappointed enemy, very like the laugh of a young child when tickled. The whole number, following one another at the distance of about three yards, formed a regular circle in the air, and played it off like a wheel, at her ear for near an hour, not seemingly at all alarmed at me, who stood within six or seven yards of the post. I enjoyed this sport as well as the pretty birds, till the cat, tired out with disappointment, quitted the gatepost, as much huffed, I believe, as 1 had been diverted." G. E. R.

NOTES ON THE WEB-WEAVING
CATERPILLARS.

[HE majority of insects producing cocoons and

THE

webs are found chiefly in the great group of Nocturni, formely called Bombyces, from the Greek Boulv, a silkworm. In the other divisions of moths, the pupa is gencarally either subterranean or concealed in leaves spun together. Nearly all our butterflies belong to the Detegentes, or Exposers, with the exception of the Hesperida, which are placed under the Celantes, or Concealers. The pups of the Noctuas are generally subterranean, although in them also there are exceptions. In England there is but one butterfly constructing a web; this is the Black-veined White (Aporia crategi), which, though here too scarce to do any damage, is on the Continent classed among noxious insects. It feeds on the Whitethorn, and appears on the wing in June and July. This species appears to be gradually becoming extinct, as it is now scarce where it was formerly abundant.

The commonest of the web-weavers is the larva of the Lackey-moth (Bombyx neustria), which may be seen on most hedges in the middle of June. It also attacks fruit-trees, and is often sufficiently common to be injurious. The most peculiar circumstance, however, concerning the Lackey is the manner in which the female deposits her eggs. The Rev. J. G. Wood, in "Homes without Hands," gives the following account of the manner in which she proceeds, and also of the origin of the name. "When the mother insect lays her eggs, she

deposits them on a small branch or twig, disposing them in a ring that completely encircles the twig, as a bracelet encircles a lady's wrist. When she has completed the circle, she covers the edge with a kind of varnish, which soon hardens, and forms a perfect defence from the rain. The varnish is so hard and binds the eggs so firmly together, that if the twig be carefully severed, the whole mass of eggs can be slipped off entire. As this varnish produces the same effect as lacquer does on polished metal, preserving the surface and defending it from rust, the insect is called the 'Lacquer,' a word that has been corrupted into 'Lackey.'' A caterpillar well known to gardeners is that of the little Ermine-moth (Tinea padella). The web of the larva seems designed to protect it from the attacks of birds, which seem unable to break through the tough outside case of the web. But although this may be a means of shelter from birds, it exposes them to a danger scarcely less formidable, inasmuch as, the web being very conspicuous, the larvæ may be destroyed in detail. It is fortunate that it is so, for as each web contains an immense number of inhabitants, were each larva to come to maturity, there would soon be scarcely a leaf left on our fruit and may-trees, which plants are the especial victims of its attacks.

An insect tolerably well known, but not quite so common as the two last, is the Gold-tail (Leparis auriflua). This moth has in its larval stage the power of "urtication," that is to say, it stings worse than nettles. The caterpillar itself is a very pretty insect, the colours being black and scarlet, mingled with white. It is found in June, feeding on the Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa). Another moth that occasionally swarms in some years, whilst in others it is hardly to be found, is the Brown-tail (Leparis chrysorrhea). It is very nearly allied to the foregoing, the chief distinction being that the tuft at the end of the tail is brown instead of yellow. A web-spinner that must be well known to the readers of SCIENCE-GOSSIP is the small Eggar. moth (Eriogaster lanestris); but it has been so fully discussed in these pages, that there is no need to write more. The Kentish Glory (Eudromis versicolor) is another of our web-weavers: it was once, as its name imports, found in Kent. Its principal habitats are Rannoch Woods, near Perth, being very scarce in the county from which it takes its name. The reason why some larvæ should provide themselves with webs, whilst others content themselves with the shelter of the foliage, has never been satisfactorily explained. There is no perceptible difference in the organization of caterpillars, nor are the larvæ of the web-spinners apparently more delicate than those of other Lepidoptera. Nor is the use of the web itself very evident. In the case of the little Ermine-moth, it is evidently intended as a means of safety from birds; its utility in other

cases is not so plain. The Lackey is one of those insects that are protected by some strange natural law from molestation by birds. The web cannot be needed in its case. Cannot some of the readers of SCIENCE-GOSSIP give us some ideas on the subject? Notting Hill. C. LOVEKIN.

ON

GRYLLUS VIRIDISSIMUS..

N the evening of Monday, September 11th, I had a beautiful Gryllus viridissimus brought to me. It was found on some dry grass, just where a hedge had been recently cut down, and was in perfect condition, and very lively.

I had not any previous knowledge of the insect, but I imagined it must be a kind of locust, so I expected it to be a very voracious creature-a devourer of any green thing. I did not at the time remember that it had been noticed in SCIENCEGOSSIP; and, as I had an engagement, I put it into a well-ventilated box with a glass lid, and, having supplied it with a quantity of fresh grass for food, left it to its fate for the day. On the Wednesday morning I could not discover that it had eaten any of the grass, and it appeared to have lost both bulk and vitality. However, I gave it a slice of apple, upon which it fed eagerly, making quite a little cavity by the action of its mandibles, and growing evidently stouter and more lively in consequence. I soon after took a walk to the spot where the insect had been found,, and gathered a sprig of every plant which grew near, hoping in this way to ascertain its preferences. I arranged in a vase, dog-rose, hawthorn, dogwood, bramble, nettle, horehound, clover, &c., and placed them under a glass shade, which rested on a perforated stand, with a patch of fresh turf at the foot of the vase, and then transferred my G. viridissimus to its new quarters, with which it seemed very well pleased. It walked deliberately over all the flowers and sprays, but did not attempt to eat any, and it finally rested with great apparent contentment upon a rose-leaf. I supplied it with a fresh piece of apple, and then turned to my volumes of SCIENCE-GOSSIP for information. I was rewarded by finding a very interesting article, headed "The Large Green Grasshopper (Acrida viridissima)." The writer remarks that, notwithstanding these names, the insect is really neither a grasshopper nor a locust, but that it belongs to the Gryllida, or Cricket family; and in a little book, "The World of Insects," I find it is called Gryllus viridissimus. My specimen has all the distinguishing characters of the Gryllida thighs of posterior legs large; tibiæ armed with spines; abdomen terminated by two slender fleshy appendages; tarsi of the anterior and intermediate pairs of legs three-jointed; antennæ long, and a long ovipositor.

:

I refer to this because the habits of my viridissimus differed somewhat from those described in SCIENCE-GOSSIP, and it might be thought that the insects were not the same.

Acting upon the information I gained, I supplied my Gryllus with cabbage-stalk, but it disregarded it, and preferred the apple. I gave it raw beef, cooked beef, flies, a caterpillar, a grasshopper, and a ladybird. All were touched both by its antennæ and its tarsi, but it did not attempt to devour any, though each remained some hours under the glass with it. The living things all came out unhurt, and the meat was not eaten. It still preferred the apple; but as I feared it did not eat enough for a creature of its size, I put in a large plum whole. This it immediately mounted, and made a cushion of for a considerable time, its bright green colour contrasting very prettily with the purple fruit, but it did not break the skin. For ten days it ate nothing that I gave it but the apple, and it looked well and was very active. I cannot help thinking that it gained part of its nourishment by gathering animalculæ both with its palpi and tarsi. The almost continual movements of the palpi, described by Mr. Ulyett as "cleaning its teeth," seemed to me to be the gathering in of its invisible food; and on examining the palpi with a lens, I found they were covered with delicate cilia, and this, I thought, gave additional probability to the idea. I fully agree with the opinion that the frequent application of the tarsi to its mouth was not for the purpose of making them glutinous, as it often put them there when it was walking about upon my hands, and I never felt them at all sticky; but I think it carried them to its mouth not only for the purpose of keeping them clean, but also to convey invisible food, for I have watched precisely the same motions when it has been resting upon a leaf, and not moving from place to place at all..

My Gryllus viridissimus was really a most elegant creature; its colours were just those of a young, vigorous autumn shoot of Rosa canina, which, with some other sprays, I placed within the glass. Over these sprays it travelled with evident satisfaction, sometimes leaping from side to side, sometimes clasping the stem, and at other times reposing head downwards upon one of the leaves. In its positions of perfect rest you could not readily distinguish it, its appearance was so leaflike. Not only were its movements very fascinating, but it was so tame and friendly that it quite gained upon one's affections: it would leap about the table, and from the table to the carpet, always allowing itself to be recaptured on presenting it a finger; so that there was no danger of hurting it. I gave it some pieces of apple, cut very thin. It just lifted up the edge with two of its palpi, and then nibbled away; once it ate in my hand. But after ten days a change came over it. It would

remain quiet for hours in some elegant, graceful position on a rose-spray, and then it would descend and appear restless; its ovipositor, from being horizontal, would become perpendicular, and it was evidently anxious to deposit some eggs; but, for some reason or other, it failed to do so. On these occasions it avoided the turf, moss, and mould, but it made many little holes in the muslin which covered the perforations of the stand; and once it pressed its ovipositor with some force on the palm of my hand, but it did not deposit eggs anywhere.

Just fourteen days after its capture the poor little thing died. Whether the cause of its death was its failing to deposit eggs, as it evidently had an inclination to do, or whether it did not get the food it preferred, I cannot tell. I should be very glad to know more of the habits of this interesting insect. E. A. M.

MANNA OF THE DESERT.

AN EDIBLE LICHEN.

AVALUED correspondent, B. W., having sent

me some notes on this production, which he hopes may prove of interest, and elicit further information from some of your readers, I beg to hand them to you, with some additions to the literature of the subject.

aceous white crust, externally wrinkled and tuberculose, grey or pale ash-colour. Apothecia rare, immersed, excavated, somewhat prominent, like warts. Occurs thickly among stones in the very driest limestone hills of the Tartarian desert, scarcely distinguishable from small stones, except by the expert." In the modern system the plant belongs to the genus Lecanora, and will stand as Lecanora esculenta, Duf.; Placodium Susufii also being a synonym.

Mr. Berkeley tells us that Dr. Arthaud published a pamphlet to prove that this must have been the manna with which the Israelites were fed, and the same view is supported by Giles Munby, Esq., in a paper on the botanical productions of the kingdom of Algiers, read at Birmingham in 1849, before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and published in Annals of Nat. History for Dec. 1849, p. 426.

Mr. Munby resided many years in Algeria, and he tells us that it covers the sand in some parts, and grows during the night like mushrooms, and also that the French soldiers during an expedition

Figs. 41, 42. Lichen esculentus (barren and fertile specimens).

The discovery of this curious plant is due to Pallas, who named it Lichen esculentus, and described and figured it in his great work, "Reise durch Verschied. Provinzen des Russischen Reiches," tom. iii. p. 760, T. II. fig. 4 (1776). As this book is not accessible to the general reader, I give copies of the figures, which are of the natural size, and add a translation of his character. "Corpuscules free, oblong, composed of a convolute, thick cori

Fig. 43. Section of the margin of a lobule, from Algerian specimens, x 80.

south of Constantine, subsisted on it for some days cooking it in various ways and making it into bread.

The specimens received from B. W. were collected at Reboud Djelfa, in the desert south of the Great Atlas chain, and are not one-fifth the size of those figured by Pallas: in appearance they precisely reresemble gum ammoniacum, but are lighter, and and when soaked in water, of a corky consistence; their taste is slightly bitter, and internally they are of a starchy nature. A section under the microscope shows numerous gonidia imbedded in the thick cortical layer a little below the surface. It will thus be seen that the manna of the desert has nothing in common with the manna of our shops, a saccharine exudation from Fraxinus ornus, nor with the similar "manna of Mount Sinai" from the Tamarix mannifera.

Presuming that the lichen is the same as that on