FIGURE 1. Pug mill 2. Roll mill.. 3. Pipe press. 4. Pipe die. LIST OF FIGURES 5. Bell and spigot pipe.. 6. Forms of sockets... 7. Support for jointing pipe... 8. Device for holding jointed pipe.. 9. Molds for Stanford joint... 10. Conical Stanford joint section. II. Spherical Stanford joint section.. 12. Archer joint. 13. Hassal joint. 14. Sykes joint... 15. Brick section in New York. 16. Joints in brick sewer.. 17. Invert blocks of American Sewer Pipe Co.. 18. Talbot's invert block.. 19. Latham's invert block.. 20. Babcock's invert block.. 21. Equilibrium polygon in Philadelphia section. 29. 94-inch sewer at Denver, Colo.. 30. Egg-shaped sewer at Rochester, N.Y. 42. Sections from catalogue of Blaw Collapsible Steel Centering Co.. 43. Sections from catalogue of Blaw Collapsible Steel Centering Co... . 44. Brick and concrete sewer at Medford, Mass.. FIGURE 45. Forms used at Medford, Mass.... 46. Brick and concrete sewer on platform. 47. Sixty-four-inch brick and concrete sewer on firm ground... 48. Brick and concrete sewer at Altoona, Pa.. 49. Circular section of Melbourne, Aus., outfall. 50. Egg-shaped section of Melbourne, Aus., outfall. 51. Section of sewer with basket-handle section... 52. Section showing continuous wood lagging for wet soil. 53. Section of Boston Aqueduct. 54. Section of reinforced concrete aqueduct at Mexico. 56. Reinforced concrete sewer at Wilmington, Del. 55. Reinforced concrete sewer at Providence, R.I. PAGE 68 69 70 71 71 72 73 73 74 76 77 78 57. Reinforced concrete sewer at Harrisburg, Pa... 58. Section of reinforced concrete aqueduct at Jersey City, N.J. 59. Reinforced concrete sewer, Borough of Queens... 60. Section of Ingersoll Run sewer, Des Moines, Ia.. 61. Section of Harlem Creek sewer, St. Louis, Mo. 62. Section of McKean St. sewer, Philadelphia.. 63. Section of sewer at South Bend, Ind... 64. Section of intercepting sewer at Cleveland, O. 65. Cross-section of manhole.. 65. Cross-section of shallow manhole. 67. Split pipe in manhole bottom.. 68. Construction of manhole floor. 69. Drawings of junction manhole. 70. Manhole from side of brick sewer. 71. Detail drawing of connection.. 80. Manhole cover built by Sessions Foundry Co.. 82. Lock used at Ithaca, N.Y.... . . 90. Location of inlets at street corner. 72. Manhole over axis of brick sewer.. 73. High level connection at Santos, Brazil. 74. High level connection on outside of manhole.. 99 100 ΙΟΙ 75. Inclined connection from high level sewer. 76. Deep manhole at Melbourne, Australia. 77. Deep manhole at Cleveland, Ohio. 78. Slips in sewer at St. Louis, Mo.. 79. Manhole cover designed for Santos, Brazil.. 81. Manhole cover from Auburn contract drawings. 91. Location of inlets at street corner.. 115 92. Location of inlets at street corner.. 115 93. Flat top grating made in Dayton, Ohio. 116 94. Circular flat top grating... 96. Horizontal grating with vertical opening. 117 117 118 FIGURE 97. Castings for horizontal grating with vertical opening. 98. Grating for curb corner 99. Grating for straight curb 100. Catch-basin at Columbus, Ohio. 101. Catch-basin at Providence, R.I. PAGE 118 119 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 126 127 128 129 130 131 134 136 138 139 141 143 144 145 146 147 149 150 155 155 127. Screen chamber at Manchester, Eng.. 158 128. Screen chamber at Providence, R.I.. 160 129. Rectangular mesh screen at White Plains, N.Y.. 160 130. Rectangular mesh screen at Marlborough, Mass. 161 162 163 165 136. Mechanical cleaning rake at Richmond, Va.. 154. Photograph of Providence bell-mouth 155. Bell-mouth cover of I-beams with vertical walls.. 192 156. Perspective sketch of sewer junction at Minneapolis, Minn.. 193 160. Egg-shaped sewer on piles at Cambridge, Mass.. 201 161. Egg-shaped sewer on piles at Lynn, Mass.. 202 162. Egg-shaped sewers on piles at Troy, N.Y. 203 163. Wooden barrel supported on piles. 204 164. Basket-handle sections on piles at Boston, Mass. 205 165. Rectangular section on piles at New York, N.Y.. 206 166. Rectangular section on piles at St. Paul, Minn.... . . 207 167. Cross-section of Moon Island embankment, Boston, Mass.. 208 168. Curves of settlement, Moon Island embankment, Boston, Mass.. 172. Outlet pipe down bluff at Niagara Falls, N.Y. 215 174. Outlet sewer, South Metropolitan District, Boston.. 173. Section of outlet, Aramingo Canal sewer, Philadelphia.. 175. Section of outlet, Broadway outfall sewer, New York 177. Section of wooden outlet, New London, Conn.. 218 219 220 221 215 217 181. V branch with bend for house connection. 182. Sketch to record location of V branches. 183. T branch for connections with deep sewers. 223 225 228 229 231 232 233 237 239 239 247 249 251 253 DURING the slow development which has taken place, not only in the design of sewers, but also in the details of their construction, many kinds of material and many forms of cross-section have been used, and a great difference in the care displayed in the work itself has resulted. Stone, brick, wood, concrete, cement pipe, terra cotta pipe, and even iron pipe have all been used. Sewers have been made rectangular, horse-shoe shaped, triangular, oval, egg-shaped, and circular. They have been built of rough field stone, without mortar, and of paving brick with cement mortar. They have been rough on the inside and smoothly plastered on the outside, and vice versa. In the course of years, however, engineering practice has become crystallized, and engineers have generally adopted circular glazed terra cotta or vitrified sewer pipe as the standard conduit for all sewers under 24 inches in diameter. A large quantity of 30 and 36-inch pipe is also used, but with that size the practice is not so well established. For still larger sizes, brick or concrete is used, either separately or together, according to the judgment of the engineer. The chief reason for the general adoption of vitrified terra cotta sewer pipe is probably cheapness, although it has the great additional advantage of having an impervious surface not affected by acids or steam, and not abraded by silt in suspension. The disadvantages are two: first, that it is impossible to prevent leakage through the joints; and second, that such pipe has only a limited strength, and must, therefore, be handled carefully, and |