FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 2, 1888.

THE Independent for Oct. 25 has an interesting article by President Gilman on 'The Future of the Johns Hopkins University.' It is the settled purpose of that institution, for the future as in the past, to maintain a collegiate or undergraduate course of study, and also a system of university or post-graduate courses. The college students come mostly from Maryland. The post-graduate students are from all parts of the country, but President Gilman thinks that in the future they will come more and more largely from the South. The university is now in most departments very well organized, but two professorships of great importance - philosophy and English are still unfilled. Professor Hall, who was to have been the head of the philosophical department, has been called to the presidency of another institution, and his place has not yet been supplied. The search for a professor of English literature, too, has not yet been successful; for the authorities of the university want a man like Matthew Arnold or James Russell Lowell, and such men are not easy to get. Strenuous efforts are making, however, to fill both these positions, and every one will hope that the right men may be found. Mr. Hopkins, as is well known, left a large sum to found a hospital, with the intention that the university should establish a medical school in connection therewith. The hospital buildings are now completed, and the university has already established three professorships as the beginning of a medical department. "The only cause for anxiety in the future of the Johns Hopkins University," says President Gilman, "is the suspension of dividends by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. The founder gave the university fifteen thousand shares of the common stock of the railroad, and he recommended the trustees in the most explicit terms to keep, protect, and defend this investment." The income from this stock has been about $150,000 a year, and has been the main support of the university; and, now that it has ceased for a time, there is little to sustain the institution except the tuition-fees and the moderate surplus that has been accumulated in past years. President Gilman suggests that the friends of the university should make up an emergency fund to relieve its present needs, and expresses confidence that such an institution as the Johns Hopkins University "will not long be allowed to suffer for the want of an income." This confidence we believe to be justified; and certainly every lover of learning will hope that a university of so much promise may suffer no check in its useful career.

THE THOROUGHNESS with which statistics are collected under the direction of Col. Carroll D. Wright by the Labor Bureau at Washington is well illustrated in the gathering of the facts in regard to marriage and divorce in the United States, that are to be embodied in a special report that will be ready early in January. The special agents engaged in this work have obtained the figures from every court in the country having divorce jurisdiction. When it is stated that there are more than twenty-seven hundred of these courts, and that the period of investigation extends over the ten years from 1876 to 1886, the magnitude of the work may be imagined. The report in each case will give the ages of the persons divorced, the cause for which the separation was granted, state whether the husband or wife obtained the decree, the number of children, the place of marriage, and the migration of the couple since then. This latter inquiry is made in order to show whether the change of residence was bona fide, or merely for the purpose of obtaining a divorce. Statistics showing the length of time the

marriage lasted, and other facts that may tend to throw light on the subject, have also been collected. The number of marriages will be given by counties for the same period, so that the ratio of divorces to marriages may be seen. There will be added a synopsis of the divorce laws of every State, and the statistics of divorces in the principal countries of Europe. No such investigation for original information has ever been made in any country, and there is none in which it could be made. If it were possible for such a force of experts to be organized elsewhere as Colonel Wright commands the services of to make the inquiries, prejudice, red tape, and respect for established institutions, would prevent them from obtaining the information they sought. Americans have reason to feel proud when they remember that nowhere upon the globe is there an organization, public or private, so well equipped for the collection of social statistics as the United States Labor Bureau.

AT LENGTH THERE IS PROSPECT of the speedy erection of a building for the Congressional Library,— for this we suppose we all ought to be truly thankful, in view of the narrow-minded way in which Congress treated the subject at the late session,- but we fear that the edifice will not be one upon which we shall have occasion to waste much pride. This is no reflection upon General Casey, who is hereafter to have full charge of the work, for we believe that he will make the best building possible with the funds at his disposal. The foundations of the building have already been built in accordance with a plan that contemplated a structure ultimately to cost ten or twelve million dollars. The cost of this work and of the necessary excavations has been several hundred thousand dollars, probably more than half a million. Economy requires the utilization of this work, and General Casey has therefore wisely concluded that the plan of the building he will erect shall be substantially the same as that before contemplated, but that he will so manage it by saving upon the cost of material, on ornamentation, etc., as to keep his expenditures within the four million which Congress has appropriated, and to which it has absolutely limited the cost. It is rare that a public building does not cost from twentyfive to fifty per cent more than is estimated: to erect a building for seventy-five per cent less than the estimated cost will be a task that no one will envy General Casey. And yet there will be a building of some sort completed much sooner than there has been any reason to anticipate. It will afford accommodation to the books and other literary and art treasures now in the Congressional Library, and for those that will accumulate for a few years to come. By the time it is full, there may be in Washington some Congress that can appreciate the value of a great library, and that will be broad-minded and patriotic enough to provide a building suitable for its accommodation, and of such style of architecture that it will not cause an American citizen to blush when he contemplates it.

CENTENARIANS IN FRANCE.'

M. LEVASSEUR has recently published the result of an inquiry into the number and condition of those who had reached the age of one hundred years, which gives interesting information regarding the extreme limits of human existence, and the proportion of men that attain it. The newspaper account of centenarians frequently ascribing an age of anywhere from one hundred and ten to one hundred and thirty years, and emphasizing details showing remarkable preservation of faculty, is of course utterly unreliable. A slight investigation is often sufficient to show the groundlessness of such pretensions. In 1871, of 37 reported centenarians in Bavaria, 1 See an article by M. V. Turquan, Revue Scientifique, Sept. 1, 1888.

not one was found really one hundred years old. In Canada the census at the same time showed 421 centenarians. Of these, only 82 could prove their citizenship, and of these only 9 were really one hundred years old, while it was probable that a still smaller proportion of the others were genuine centenarians. The 1886 census of France records 184 centenarians,- 66 men and 118 women. This number, though not in excess of the usual record, has aroused suspicion, and led to further inquiry.

The reasons for falsification are quite evident. A peculiar and innocent kind of pride; ignorance of their real age; the assurance of being very, very old, — all these, in passing from mouth to mouth, become cases of advanced centenarianism. Upon closer inquiry, of these 184, only 83 stood the slightest investigation; of the remaining 101, many were really very old, but not one hundred years old; and three young persons gave in their answers as a joke. A reference to the birth register showed that 49 of the alleged centenarians were really of the following ages: 1 of 77, 2 of 78, 1 of 79, 1 of 80, 1 of 82, 1 of 86, 1 of 89, 4 of 90, 4 of 91, 6 of 92, 1 of 93, 4 of 94, 6 of 95, 5 of 96, 2 of 97, 2 of 98, and 7 of 99. Of the rest, no reliable information was obtainable.

Of the 83, only 16 showed their baptismal records to the authorities at Paris; the other 67 did not send their records of baptism to Paris (in some cases these were seen at their houses), but produced the less satisfactory evidence of a marriage certificate, etc. Of these 83 (containing an uncertain number of fraudulent cases, no doubt), 31 were men and 52 women. Of the men, 6 had never married, 2 were married, and 23 widowers: corresponding numbers for the women were 10, 1, and 41. Again: 44 were just 100 years old, 16 were 101, 7 were 102, 6 were 103, 5 were 104, 3 were 105, and 1 claimed to be 112 and another 116 years old, yielding an average age of 101 years and 4 months. The veteran of 116 years is reported to be in good health in June last at 118 years. But dismissing this as well as the preceding case, 105 may be regarded as the extreme limit of life in France.1

The profession of 59 of the 83 was ascertainable: 22 were farmers and laborers, 9 were handicraftsmen, 8 were land-holders, 6 were cooks or domestics, 5 were merchants, 2 were shepherds, and of the other 7, I was a teacher, I an insurance-agent, I a hotelkeeper, I a midwife, 1 a widow of a costumer, I a widow of a doctor, and I a widow of a stone-cutter. They can also be classified as follows: those living in actual poverty, 22; of very limited means, 10; of a modest fortune, 7; in easy circumstances, 6; wealthy, I; present fortune unknown, but quite limited in means (as can be deduced from their former professions), 37. The fact that so large a proportion of centenarians come from the poorer and the hard-working classes is a striking one, and is borne out by the statistics of other countries. Their habits of life, too, when such information is obtainable, point to a simple, wholesome diet, much outdoor activity, and little care.

Another means of gauging the number of centenarians is by the number of annual deaths of persons of 100 years or more. In the twenty years from 1866 to 1886 the deaths of 1,474 such persons are reported (553 men and 921 women), or about 73 such deaths annually (27 men, 46 women). This justifies the conclusion that about 70 centenarians for France is a liberal if not a maximum estimate, and the every-day reports are greatly exaggerated. The average annual death-rate of centenarians for the years 1855 to 1885 is 87, or 1 to about 15,000 of the population, a doubtlessly greatly exaggerated account.

A topic of interest to French but hardly to American readers, is the local distribution of the centenarians in the different departments of France. The southern portion, and especially the region bordering upon the Pyrenees, is particularly fruitful of centenarians.

While these statistics serve to correct popular estimates, they are themselves not rigid enough to be accepted as they stand. Many suspicious points still occur: the preponderance of women over men is too great to be capable of a biological explanation; the preponderance of the working-classes may be a sign of ignorance or of mendacity as well as of longevity; and so on. At any rate, the general conclusion seems warranted that there are really very few centenarians to a million souls.

1 One of these patriarchs stands at the head of five generations, and counts ninetyfive children and grandchildren; another has seventy direct descendants.

THE TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF NEW JERSEY. MENTION has been made in Science from time to time of the topographic maps of different parts of the country, and in particular of the numerous sheets that constitute the Atlas of New Jersey.' The seventeen sheets, on a scale of a mile to an inch, and with contours every ten or twenty feet, covering the whole State, have all been issued, and are now followed by two general maps of the State on a scale of five miles to an inch. The first of these gives counties, townships, cities, villages, railroads, and many of the roads, but gives no indication of the topographic relief. The second has the railroads and a small number of towns, and indicates the topography with great nicety by a series of tints of increasing darkness with increasing height. Thus for the first time in this country is the form of one of our States duly portrayed.

The map is a picture that the geographer may lean over for hours with increasing interest. The features of the State are brought out with perfect distinctness. The broad plains of the southern half, where the railroads run along the flat divides between the streams, is shown in the strongest contrast with the rugged highlands of the northern half, where the valleys alone afford highways. The curiously curved ridges formed by the trap sheets of the triassic area appear with their well-marked individuality. The faintly submerged valleys of all the salt-water coast-line are distinctly revealed by the estuary-like form of the lower streamcourses; and all this not merely in outline, as it appears on ordinary maps, but with accurately determined contours, giving the quantity as well as the quality of the form of the State. Besides this, the map is very suggestive in the way of displaying hitherto unsuspected problems, whose very quantities were unknown before. Now they take definite shape, and call for solution. Look, for example, in the southern half of the State, at the general line of divides between the streams flowing into the Atlantic and those flowing into the Delaware, and note not only the great bend, but also the diminution in height of the line at the head of the Rancocas has this not some connection with the bend of the Delaware from its direct course at Bordentown? See the oblique truncation of Sourland Mountain on a line, that, when extended, leads to the similarly oblique truncation of the Watchung Ridges: is there not some great dislocation responsible for this coincidence? Notice the heavy morainic barrier that bisects the Passaic basin within the Watchung Ridges: the present line of escape for the Passaic from the Great Swamp that lies outside of the moraine must have been adopted since the glacial period. It is only when the relief of the ground is given quantitively, as by contours, that problems such as these can be discussed satisfactorily: hence the great advance that geography may count upon when accurate contoured and shaded maps are published for other States.

This map of New Jersey recalls a similar one of Scotland, prepared by Bartholomew, with explanatory text by James Geikie, and published in the first number of the Scottish Geographical Magazine a few years ago. Professor Geikie did good service to geography in calling attention to the absolute need of good maps, showing the real form of the country that one has to study; and we would gladly repeat and emphasize every word that he says as to their educational value. But there is another curious correspondence between the two cases: Geikie's physical description of the Scottish highlands and lowlands applies with extraordinary accuracy to the northern third of New Jersey. In both, the highlands are distorted and ancient hard rocks, which have been heavily eroded, and whose general upland surface is an old lowland, elevated, and now deeply consumed by valley-making streams. Both highlands are separated from the lowlands that lie south-east of them by a great fracture, with up and down throw on corresponding sides. Both lowlands owe their present moderate elevation not so much to any depression that they have suffered as to the broad wasting-away of their relatively soft rocks; while the hard crystallines of the highlands have wasted more slowly, and still retain much of the height that the lowlands have lost. The ridges that rise above the lowlands, both in Scotland and New Jersey, are beds of volcanic rock that have, like the highlands, wasted slowly, so as to stand up in strong relief above the softer rocks on either side. There are, of course, differences in plenty

between the two regions, but the correspondences are certainly extraordinary.

We shall hope soon to hear that the excellent and practical work of the New Jersey Survey has been appreciated by the school-boards of that State, and that copies of this new topographic map and of the appropriate local sheet of the State atlas have been placed in all the high schools and academies. Teachers could then carry on the modern reform in geographic teaching beyond its simple first step, which involves a map of the school-yard and home town, to the more difficult second step, in which correct maps of larger areas are needed. Until this is generally possible and actual, reform in geographic teaching will not go far beyond the merest elements of the subject. If Professor Cook is as successful in putting the State maps into practical use as he has been in surpervising their preparation, we shall owe him a double debt.

W. M. D.

TISSOT'S THEORY OF THE PROJECTION OF MAPS. THE question as to what projection to select for a certain map is one of great importance to the cartographer. As is well known, the earth's surface cannot be represented on a plane sheet of paper without distorting the lengths of lines, and without altering the size of surface or of angles; and for this reason it becomes the duty of the cartographer to select a projection, or a method of representing the curved surface on a plane, by which the distortions and alterations become as small as possible. Merit is due a French geographer and mathematician, M. A. Tissot, for having first pointed out a method by which this problem can be easily solved. Unfortunately his book, which was published in 1881, is little known, and therefore the necessary process of replacing the old projections, which he has proved to be inadequate, by new and better ones, is making hardly any progress.

The principle which underlies his researches is so clear and simple, that it may be stated here. Tissot assumes, an infinitely small circle on a curved surface. If this surface is represented on a plane, the circle assumes the shape of an ellipse, on account of the unavoidable distortion. The great and small diameters of this ellipse are a and b, and their ratio is a measure of the angular distortion, while their product is a measure of the alteration of surface. The ratio between a and the radius of the original small circle, r, is a measure of the alteration of scale. Tissot shows how to compute the length of the axes of this ellipse, which he calls the indicatrix, as indicating the distortion, and how to determine their direction.

This general theory is next applied to the construction of maps. For any law according to which a system of meridians and parallels is constructed, we can compute a and b as functions of latitude and longitude, and thus a means is obtained of studying the distortions all over the surface of the map.

Maps are made to serve various purposes. In many cases it is necessary that a square inch on one part of the map should represent the same area as a square inch on any other part of the map, or, as it is generally expressed, that the areas should be preserved. Projections of this kind are called 'equivalent,' while Tissot introduces the expression 'authallic.' It is evident that every projection in which the indicatrix-ellipse is equal to the small circle, is equivalent. In other cases it is desirable that each small part of a map be similar to the corresponding part of the earth. This is possible only when the indicatrix is a circle; that is, when a = b. These projections are called by Tissot autogonal,' as the angles are preserved. In still other cases we do not mind an alteration of angle and surface, but wish to preserve the length of lines as much as possible. For this purpose the ratio of a, b, and must be as near I as possible. Tissot calls projections in which angles and surfaces are altered 'aphylactic.'

The problem, according to this, is very simple. According to the purpose for which a map is intended, we choose one of the three classes of projections. It is the task of the cartographer to select the projection for a map so that, if one property is preserved, the others are changed as little as possible. If, for instance, the areas are preserved, the angles must be altered as little as possible. 1 Mémoire sur la Représentation des Surfaces et les Projections des Cartes Géographiques. Par M. A. TISSOT. Paris, Gauthier-Villars.

A projection which has this property is called by Tissot 'perigonal,' while an autogonal projection in which the alteration of surface is a minimum is called 'perihallic.' We have seen that the distortion is a function of latitude and longitude. If, then, a country of limited extent is given, we must study this function over the whole area of the map; and, as there are an infinite number of each class of projections, we are able to select the function so that the unavoidable distortion of one of the elements becomes a minimum.

The last case, that of 'aphylactic' projections, has been treated by Airy in his projection by balance of errors; but the theory of these projections and their application to certain areas has first been given by Tissot. His admirable work must form the basis of all future cartographic work.

The importance of his researches may be understood by his discussion of the distortions of the map of France. The great map of the war department of that country is constructed in Bonne's projection; the map being equivalent, and the maximum alteration of angle being 18 minutes, and the greatest distortion of scale. These would have been 10' 30" and respectively, if a more suitable central meridian had been selected; but they would have been reduced to 25 seconds and, if Tissot's principles had been applied.

It is to be hoped that the thorough study of his work will lead to the adoption of better projections than those which are at present in use.

IN the chapter entitled 'Our School Systems,' which is one of the most interesting and suggestive of all those that will accompany the forthcoming annual report of the United States commissioner of education, the effect of school-work on eyesight will be very fully discussed, chiefly in extracts from the reports of city school superintendents.

Mr. George Howland, superintendent of Chicago schools, says: "In the old school-rooms, and we need not go far back for them, the light was often so insufficient, that much harm undoubtedly resulted to the eyes of the children. But in our newer buildings so much thoughtful attention has been given to this subject, that the evil no longer exists there. Pupils, too, have been allowed to study with too little regard to position, and with the object too near the eye; perhaps with the result of myopia in some cases, but by no means, in my judgment, to the extent often charged. The oculist is too definite, and too certain in his knowledge. Why should the book or paper always be 'fifteen inches from the eye '? Five feet seven may be the average height of a man, and eight the right number for his boot; but is he to be considered deformed, or a monstrosity, who is five feet six, or who wears a number seven or nine?

"Of over eighty thousand children in our schools, I have never seen one voluntarily take that distance, and have eminent professional opinion that such an enforced rule would work more harm than ever our neglect has done. Nothing will lie so unblushingly as figures."

The following, from the report of the board of education, describes the results of a recent examination of the eyes of the pupils of two of the leading public schools of Memphis, Tenn:

The eyes of 681 pupils have been examined. Of these, 588 had perfect sight, 60 had imperfect sight from general causes, and 30 had impaired vision from eye-strain. It is interesting to trace the gradual increase of this form of impaired sight (near-sightedness) from the primary classes, where it is hardly noticeable, to the highest grade, where it reaches fifteen per cent. In this particular my results are similar to those obtained by examiners in this and other countries. But a point which should not be overlooked is this, — that my examinations were confined to pupils in two different school-buildings, each of which may be taken as a sample of its class. The Market Street building has been recently constructed,

and is well arranged, both as to illumination and ventilation; whereas the antiquated structure on Linden Street is sadly deficient in both of these particulars. Now compare the percentage of nearsighted children in corresponding classes (fourth, fifth, and sixth) in the two buildings, and you will find that while the Market Street school has 2.8 per cent, the Linden Street school has 5 per cent. These figures commend the new building as strongly as they condemn the old, and no stronger plea can be advanced for new buildings, so constructed as to furnish proper illumination and a plentiful supply of fresh air, than is furnished by these figures, which show that nearly double the number of the pupils with impaired sight come from a badly constructed building with poor light and bad air."

In November, 1886, Dr. H. P. Allen of Columbus, O., was appointed by the board of education of that city to examine the eyes of the pupils of the public schools. In his report he says:

'I examined between Dec. 12, 1886, and June 6, 1887, the eyes of 4,700 pupils of the public schools, as follows: All of the highschool classes, 12 in number; all of the grammar schools, 72 in number; all of the primary schools, 24 in number; and 12 of the B, C, and D primary schools; making a total of 120 schools out of the 200 of the city. This included all of the children above 10 years of age, with the exception of about 250, who were scattered through the various lower schools. I visited all of the school-buildings, and saw most of the school-rooms.

"The examinations were made chiefly to determine the condition of vision of the children, and find, in cases where vision was defective, the correcting glasses. The work was done in the schoolroom during school-hours. Each child was examined separately, its name, age, sex, nationality, complexion, color of eyes, condition of sight, and required glass noted at the time. My records indicate the kind of trouble and the condition of sight with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes, and enable us to draw certain welldefined deductions. The points to which I wish especially to call your attention are as follows:

"First, The large number and percentage of pupils among the 4,700 with one or two defective eyes,-1,175 cases, or 25 per cent of all the children examined.

Second, Those with two defective eyes, 936, or 20 per cent of all the children examined.

"Third, The increase in prevalence of near-sightedness as we go up the scale from o per cent in the D primary schools to 13 per cent in the senior class of the high school, and 17 per cent among the females of the senior class from o per cent at the age of 6 years to 11.3 per cent at the age of 17 years, showing the relation of this trouble to increasing age and increasing demands upon the eyes.

"Fourth, The about equal percentage of each of the other defects in the low, intermediate, and high grades, showing their independence of increasing years and increasing demands upon the eyes.

“Fifth, the diminution in the percentage of good eyes as we ascend the scale, from 80 per cent in the D primary to 66.6 per cent in the senior class of the high school."

A similar examination was made during the year, of the eyes of pupils in the public schools of Kansas City and Nevada, Mo., and of the students of the State normal schools at Warrensburg and Kirksville, Mo., and the State universities of Missouri and Kansas, by Flavel B. Tiffany, M.D., of Kansas City, Mo. The results of this examination differ in at least one material respect from those reported from Memphis and Columbus. The most important facts developed, with other matters of interest mentioned by the examiner, are here shown:

That perfect vision, perfect eyesight, be enjoyed by our progeny, depends largely upon the recognition of any defect, slight though it may be, in early life, timely correction of the same if possible, and care and proper use of the organ while in the school-room. That many a boy or girl with some anomaly of refraction or accommodation has been allowed to suffer day after day in order to keep pace with his class, and eventually develop more serious conditions or even blindness, is too evident; whereas if the trouble had been recognized in time, and proper steps taken, much suffering as well as serious consequences could have been averted. The object of these investigations is to ascertain the condition of the eyes of the youth, the effect of use of the organ for near and small objects, and

the final consequences; and finally, if possible, to correct the evils arising before irremediable damage has been done.

"In our investigations not only myopia but hypermetropia, aştigmatism, spasm of accommodation, and strabismus were looked for. Every eye that was not up to the standard of vision (that of twenty-twentieths) was not dubbed myopic. A careful examination was made with the trial glasses, or optometer, and a more accurate diagnosis made. Our results show a much larger per cent of hypermetropia and astigmatism, and spasm of accommodation, than myopia, there being nearly four times as many hypermetropic pupils as myopic. Of the whole number examined, 2,040, in the different grades and schools, 99, or 4.8 per cent, had spasm of accommodation. Now, spasm of accommodation, or simple hypermetropia even, if not corrected by glasses or relieved by rest from near and small objects, is likely to develop into myopia, or possibly intra-ocular disease: hence the importance of these examinations.

ments.

"In our examinations the increase of anomaly of refraction as we ascend in the grades is not marked, in fact, in some schools it seems to diminish, — but this would not be a definite proof one way or the other, since from one examination, as a different set of pupils are examined in each grade and in each school, there is no means of knowing but that those of the higher grades started with the same degree of anomaly in the primary departments as is found in the seventh year of the grammar school or the high school. In fact, it seems to be true that pupils with anomalies of refraction, both myopes and hypermetropes, are closer students and fonder of books and study than the emmetropes or those of perfect vision; and hence these students remain in school, while many of those with perfect vision drop out before they reach the higher departIn our examinations we find a greater percentage of anomaly among the normal schools of Kirksville and Warrensburg than any other; but it does not necessarily follow that this is the result of a longer course of study and closer application with the eyes, although it is conjecturally true. The only way to prove that study is the cause, or otherwise, is to watch the same set of pupils from the primary department up through the different grades, and see if John, Mary, and James, starting at six or seven years of age in the primary department with perfect emmetropic eyes, finally later on develop myopia. In our examinations this can be done, as we have the name in full, color of each eye, present amount of vision, whether there is any hereditary defect or not; and now, should the examinations be continued and the same pupils called for as they enter the higher grades year after year, a very definite and satisfactory idea can be gained.

"As to the lighting and ventilation of our school-rooms, very little need be said, as so much attention has been given to this subject by our efficient board, that the Kansas City school-room is almost perfection in those particulars. In the Washington School, where we find the largest per cent of defective eyes in the lower grades, I noticed first and second year pupils, for want of room, were crowded into a room calculated for older pupils, and hence the distance between the desk and the seat was too great, as well as that from the seat to the floor, compelling the little pupil to hang, as it were, upon the desk, his feet not touching the floor. This position, of necessity, brought his face too near his book or slate, and hence taxed the power of accommodation of the eyes to a great degree; and besides, this school, from its location on the north side of the hill, is not so well lighted and ventilated as others. In the Nevada School I found a less degree of anomaly among the same grade of students than in the Kansas City schools. This I attributed to the fact that the school is in a small country town, where the children have more freedom of the field, where they are not crowded so much as our city children are, and perhaps have better ventilated school-rooms.

There were 2,040 pupils examined, embracing seven different nationalities, besides several of mixed nationality.

"Of the 1,422 Americans, 300, or 21.1 per cent, have some anomaly of refraction.

Of the 129 Germans, 32, or 24.8 per cent, are affected; of the 26 French, 5, or 19.2 per cent; of the 15 Scotch, 3, or 20 per cent; of the 67 Irish, 20, or 27.8 per cent; of the 47 English, 8, or 17 per cent; of the 11 Swedish, 3, or 27.2 per cent; of the 93 mixed, 22, or 23.6 per cent.

"The Irish, Swedish, and Germans have the highest percentage of affections; the English, French, Scotch, and Americans, the lowest percentage. Out of the whole number examined, 1,162 were girls and 878 boys; 458 had some ametropia (some anomaly of refraction). Of the 1,162 girls, 290, or 24.9 per cent, were ametropic; of the 878 boys, 168, or 19.1 per cent, were ametropic; being a larger per cent of affection among the girls than among the boys. "Out of the 2,040 pupils, 13, or 0.6 per cent, had strabismus; 94, or 4.6 per cent, were myopic; 202, or 9.9 per cent, were hypermetropic; 42, or 2.06 per cent, were astigmatic; 99, or 4.8 per cent, had spasm of accommodation; and 63, or 3.1 per cent, had latent hypermetropia.

We find that hypermetropia predominates. If we add latent hypermetropia and spasm of accommodation, saying nothing of astigmatism, of which the majority was hypermetropic, we have 364 hypermetropes to 94 myopes, or nearly four times as many hypermetropes as myopes, or over twice as many as all the other affections taken together. In the table, as seen, all the grades, from the primary through the grammar school, high school, normal school, and university, are represented; but in no instance, excepting the Kansas State University, is there any thing like a gradual increase of myopia or any of the anomalies simply or collectively. In nearly all of the schools there seems to be a higher per cent of affection in the first years; then, a little later in the course, a marked diminution; and then again an increase. Probably many of those having some trouble after remaining in school for a short time drop out, which would account for the diminution; and then spasm of accommodation and latent hypermetropia becoming manifest later on, or perhaps developing into myopia, would account for the increase in this affection.

"School-life, however, as stated above, so far as I can gather by these examinations, has little or nothing to do in the development of these anomalies. That they exist, however, in a much greater degree than is generally supposed, is very evident; and that continuous use of the eyes having these errors of refraction, whether in the school-room or out of it, if not corrected, is sure to have its evil consequences. The importance of a recognition of the existence of these anomalies, of their extreme frequency, and of detecting and correcting them, is obvious enough. We should take into consideration that spasm of accommodation and latent hypermetropia frequently exist, and that these affections often develop into myopia; and if recognized early, and timely treated by rest and glasses, much suffering and irremediable troubles are averted. Cohn and others may have been able, twenty years ago, to trace the development of myopia to badly appointed school-rooms; but here in America our school-rooms are so carefully arranged as to light, seats, desks, ventilation, etc., that we can scarcely attribute to the work in the school-room the cause of anomalies. In a very great degree these errors of refraction are congenital, frequently they are latent, and, if the eyes were not overtaxed by near work, they would never become manifest. The evil arising from work in the schoolroom is that these errors of refraction are not perceived, and hence not corrected. If the teacher could be made to understand that the little pupils complaining of headache, pain through the temples, and weakness of the eyes, or dimness of vision, arose neither from stupidity nor desire to avoid study, but that these complaints were symptoms of some defect of the organ of vision, or, what would be better still, let a competent oculist carefully examine each child as he enters upon each year of study in the school-work, and his anomaly, if he have any, corrected, anomalies would gradually diminish."

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY.

The Neglect of Native Fruit-Plants in California. SINCE the settlement of California, its fruit-growing interests have rapidly gained great importance. It is remarkable, that, notwithstanding the economic value of this industry, hardly any attempts have been made to utilize the native fruit-plants; and Mr. H. Semler, who is so well conversant with the flora of California, has done good service in calling attention to the numerous plants that appear well worth being cultivated, and promise to become a source of considerable revenue. He states, that except the seeds

of the nut-pine, which are sometimes used as a dessert, only one or two species of blueberry (Vaccinium) are sold, although they are not cultivated. Hardly any attempts have been made to cultivate the numerous native berries. In a recent number of Petermann's Mitteilungen he draws attention to a number of these plants.

There is a good Californian raspberry (Rubus leucodermis). The European raspberry is cultivated with limited success only in the valley of the Hudson and in New Jersey, although its culture is made difficult by the extreme cold of winter. For this reason attempts were made to cultivate Rubus strigosus and Rubus Occidentalis (the red raspberry and the thimble-berry). By breeding and crossing these species, the raspberries now in use were obtained. These have been introduced into California, while the native raspberry of that State is neglected, although, even in its wild state, it has a better taste than the wild eastern berries.

In the same way the eastern blackberries and dewberries have been introduced, although two excellent species are native to the Pacific coast. Since the discovery of the Lawton' or 'New Rochelle,' numerous varieties of Rubus villosus have been cultivated, and plantations of great extent and value are found in California. No attempts, however, have been made at developing Rubus ursinus, a native of the Californian coast, which is used by farmers for making jams and jellies; nor has Rubus pedatus of the Sierra Nevada, which has small and sweet jet-black berries, attracted any attention.

Gooseberry-culture has so far been a failure in North America. The European varieties degenerate and perish after a few years. A few years since, Ribes aureum, a native of Missouri, was cultivated and used as a stock for the European great-fruited varieties. The Californian Ribes divaricatum seems still better adapted to this purpose, and with proper culture it will undoubtedly produce fruits that will equal the European varieties in every respect.

The salmon-berry (Rubus spectabilis) and the Pacific thimble-berry (Rubus Nutkanus) are admirably adapted for making jams. Both have a peculiarly sweet and aromatic taste and very small seeds. They do not keep any length of time, and cannot be transported on account of their softness, but may be preserved, as is now extensively done by settlers in the woods of Oregon and British Columbia. The young sprouts of the salmon-berry are boiled, and are said to be better than spinach.

Besides these, we mention the large currant, Ribes bracteosum, which would probably prove a valuable shrub ; the Leña amarilla, one of the four Californian barberries, which is frequently used in Mexico, but has not attracted the attention of horticulturists; and the Californian vine, Vitis Californica, which might be developed just as well as the eastern species of Vitis æstivalis and V. riparia, which have become the stock of renowned eastern vines.

It would be well if Californian horticulturists would not only direct their attention to foreign products and to endeavors to introduce them into California, but also attempt to cultivate the native plants of their State, many of which might become sources of important industries.

ELECTRICAL SCIENCE.

Improvements in Methods of Manufacturing Storage-
Batteries.

MR. MADDEN, in the Electrical World, describes some recent improvements in the methods of manufacturing secondary batteries of the grid type. The plates of which these batteries are composed have been made heretofore by pasting by hand a mixture of red lead and sulphuric acid into hourglass-shaped holes in a castlead frame. Hand-labor in such work has two objections: it is expensive, and it does not give uniform results. The life of the cell, and its freedom from expensive depreciation, depend to a great extent on a perfect uniformity of condition all over the plate. To attain this, Mr. Madden has devised a machine that pastes the plate automatically, giving a uniform density to the red lead in each hole.

The red lead, mixed with the proper amount of dilute sulphuric acid, is fed to a mixing-screw of varying pitch, working in a cylindrical casing. The pitch of the screw is such that the mass is compressed as it nears an opening which has a length equal to