and Muskingum in Ohio, the Blue River in Indiana, about twenty rivers and ponds in Illinois, the Barren and Green Rivers in Kentucky, and the Current River in Missouri, besides a number of lakes, Geneva Lake in Wisconsin, and the Blue, Beaver, and Alcorn Rivers in Nebraska. The varieties of edible fishes planted in these rivers include all the common kinds, such as spotted cat, crappie, or fresh-water drum, several species of bass, white perch, and pickerel.

On the Pacific coast the propagation of salmon was renewed, and during the season about five million salmon-fry were placed in the Columbia and McCloud Rivers and in the shorter streams on the coasts of California and Oregon.

On the Great Lakes the propagation of whitefish has been continued, but on a far greater scale than ever before.

In former days the inshore cod and halibut fisheries on the coast of New England were exceedingly valuable, as they still are on the Pacific coast. Thousands of men of small means, and owning little boats and comparatively primitive apparatus, earned comfortable livings by fishing for cod in the Gulf of Maine, Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays, Vineyard Sound, Long Island Sound, and at many other points along the coast. The fishes were taken in abundance and sold fresh, the most profitable way to the fisherman. But this source of wealth has been largely destroyed by over-fishing; and in few places along the whole coast of New England, outside of Ipswich Bay, are the cod plentiful enough to pay the fishermen for attempting to take them. To catch cod or halibut in large quantities now, one must go to the offshore banks; and this a majority of these inshore fishermen are too poor to do, or they have domestic ties that keep them at home, or they think the risk too great or the labor too severe to be compensated for by the average 'fares.' The halibut were the first to disappear, and the cod and lobsters have also been caught up; so that now all three are very scarce. These inshore cod never migrate to the offshore banks. During a part of the season they remain quite near the shore, and later move out into deeper water, but never to a great distance from the points where they are found during the fishing

season.

In 1878 it was demonstrated by experiments made by the United States Fish Commission that the eggs of the inshore cod could be artificially hatched, and that the small fishes that survived would return to the shore the next year. A majority of the young, cod were, however, killed that year by anchor-ice. Several times subsequently small quantities of inshore codfish-eggs were artificially hatched, but last year the hatching of these codfish-eggs was begun on a large scale. The result was entirely satisfactory. Thousands of the young cod that were hatched during the season of 1887 were seen last spring and summer, and there is no longer any doubt that the inshore fisheries of the New England coast may be restored. This will be as important a result (probably more important) as the work which the Fish Commission has accomplished in regard to stocking rivers with shad; and, according to conservative estimates, the increase in the supply of this valuable food-fish, as a result of the work of the commission, is, in actual value, very much greater than the entire cost of the commission, with all its varied work, from the time of its foundation to the present.

Preparations have now been made for the artificial propagation of inshore cod during the present season on an immense scale. The stations have a capacity for handling four hundred million eggs; and, if the season is favorable, about one-fourth of that number will probably be hatched. The principal obstacles are stormy weather and anchor-ice.

In Maine and upon the Hudson River the work of propagating salmon has been prosecuted during the past season.

During the last twelve months, new fish-commission stations have been established or re-opened, as follows: Clackamas station on the Columbia River, and Baird station on the McCloud River, for salmon-work, put into operation again; an extensive station at Duluth for the propagation of whitefish and trout; a large station at Gloucester, Mass., for the hatching of the eggs of inshore cod. The United States Fish Commission is operating, during the present season, the State station at Sandusky, O., in the propagation of whitefish. Congress, during its late session, provided for a large station at Neosho, Mo., for the propagation of trout and the

indigenous fishes of the region. This will be completed by the end of the fiscal year, and is expected to benefit Missouri, Arkansas, Kansas, Texas, and western Louisiana.

The most extensive and important work done by the Fish Commission during the past season, in the way of exploration with a view to future practical results, was that accomplished by the steamer Albatross' on the Pacific coast. This steamer, which, since she was built five years ago, had been engaged in work on the Atlantic coast, started around the Horn after the close of last season. She arrived in San Francisco late in the spring, and, July 4, sailed for the Alaskan fishing-grounds. It has been known that the sea-fisheries of the Pacific coast are very extensive and very rich, but they are practically undeveloped except in the vicinity of San Francisco. The purpose of the commissioner in sending the ' Albatross' to the Pacific Ocean was, by a series of careful surveys, to ascertain the locations of the sea-fishing grounds of all kinds, their extent, character, productiveness, their nearness to market, the kinds of bait that might be used, the methods of obtaining it and its abundance, and, in short, to develop the sea-fisheries of the Pacific coast.

Important banks are distributed along the coasts of Washington Territory and Vancouver's Island, at points easily accessible from the ports in Puget Sound. The fishes upon them are very abundant. They swarm with halibut, and also furnish cod in abundance. It was on these grounds that the Gloucester fishing-vessel, 'Mollie Adams,' owned by Capt. Solomon Jacobs, did her successful halibut-fishing during the last summer. She kept her halibut fresh, and shipped it in that condition to the New York and Boston markets, where, in no way inferior to that landed at Gloucester, it was sold at eight cents per pound, while the price of Eastern halibut was twelve cents a pound.

It must not be inferred from this that Pacific coast halibut can compete successfully in New York and Boston with that caught on the Grand Banks. In the first place, the price at which the Eastern halibut was sold was not the natural one, but had been fixed arbitrarily by a 'trust.' Yet the Pacific coast fishermen have some very important advantages. Three or four trips can be made there to one to the great banks of the Eastern coast. These Pacific coast fisheries are also conveniently near ports of shipment. Then Captain Jacobs secured unusually low rates of freight; and, even if he had made no money, he would undoubtedly have sent his fresh halibut East in a spirit of bravado, and to show those people who had laughed at him for taking the Mollie Adams' to the Pacific Ocean that he didn't go on so much of a fool's errand, after all.

The permanent markets for fresh halibut caught on the Pacific coast will be San Francisco, and other cities and towns of California that are rapidly growing into importance; the great mountain cities of Salt Lake City, Denver, etc.; and all the Mississippi valley as far east as Chicago, and extending north and south from Duluth to New Orleans. In all this vast territory the reduced expense of catching halibut will enable the Pacific coast fishermen to compete successfully with those who land their fresh halibut at Gloucester. In Alaska the fishing-banks correspond in their extent, character, kinds, and abundance of fish, with the great offshore fishingbanks of eastern North America. They are inhabited by the same species of cod and halibut that occur on the east coast; and, although the general positions of these Alaskan banks has been known for some years, they have never been surveyed, and the few fishermen who resort to them find the rich spots by trial, and return to them from time to time. The most important of these banks are situated just off the coast from Unalaska to some distance east of Kadiak Island, - - an extent of from six hundred to seven hundred nautical miles: that is to say, that, throughout the region whose boundaries have been given approximately, the fishing-banks are as well defined as those on the Atlantic coast; but good fishing occurs both to the north and south throughout the Alaskan coast, while on the north the cod-fishery is limited only by ice.

These banks are a very valuable and important possession. Great quantities of cod are now to be found there, and an industry can be built up that may be made very profitable to the Pacific seaports. Of course, the cod caught on these banks will be salted, and the markets for them will be almost unlimited. They will comprise, besides our own country, the western parts of Mexico,

Central and South America, Japan, China, Australia; in short, the entire populations who live upon or near the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

It is the mission of the Albatross' to explore all the fishinggrounds on the Pacific coast. It is expected that she will remain at work the whole year, except during periods occupied in refitting and repairs, and that three or four years will be spent in completing the work. She will spend the summer in the north, working southward as winter approaches. Some of her winter work will be done on the coast of southern California.

The Albatross' returned to San Francisco Oct. 21, from her first cruise to the north. She had spent about two and one-half months upon the Alaskan fishing-grounds, and one month in the region off Cape Flattery. A very careful series of soundings was made of the grounds visited; and these, when plotted on charts and represented graphically, will give the contour of a very large fishing-area, to which the attention of fishermen will be called. In addition to this, the regular observations were made to determine the temperatures and densities of the water, the relative abundance of edible fishes on different parts of the banks, the character of the bottom, etc. All kinds of collecting and fishing appliances were constantly and successfully used; and an extensive collection of specimens was secured, which will be studied in the laboratories in Washington, in order to determine the principal natural features of the fishing-grounds. Lieut.-Commander Z. L. Tanner, U.S.N., is in charge of the expedition, having commanded the 'Albatross' ever since her construction in 1883. He has been in active service with the Fish Commission about nine years. Mr. C. H. Townsend is the naturalist, and Mr. A. B. Alexander the fishery expert, of the expedition.

The experimental station at Wood's Holl was kept open during the summer, as usual, from early in July to October. The commissioner himself was present there during most of the time with Prof. John A. Ryder, in charge of the scientific work. From twelve to fifteen volunteer naturalists, including Prof. W. K. Brooks of Johns Hopkins University, were at work at the Wood's Holl station during most of the time. The steamer Albatross' having gone to the Pacific coast, and regular explorations on the offshore fishing-banks being therefore suspended, the work of the season consisted mainly in a study of embryology with regard to its bearing upon the fish-cultural branch of the Fish Commission's work. Many studies were also made of fishes and their habits in later stages of development. A quantity of English soles had been brought to this country last spring, and had been kept in a compartment of the laboratory at Wood's Holl. They were planted in Vineyard Sound in October.

The steamer 'Fish Hawk' was employed for about two months in examining the oyster-beds of Providence River, Narragansett Bay, and Long Island Sound near New Haven, with especial reference to the depredations of the star-fish and drill, which are estimated to destroy several hundred thousand dollars' worth of oysters every year. The operations were mainly confined to studies of the temperatures and densities of the water on the oyster-beds upon which these pests thrive, and of the inhabitants of the bottom, with a view of ascertaining the conditions of their existence. It is an interesting fact that the star-fish cannot live in fresh water, nor in water that does not contain a considerable quantity of salt. For this reason, no star-fishes infest the oyster-beds of Chesapeake Bay. In the early spring of 1886 one of the greatest freshets ever known occurred in Rhode Island. Several inches of snow was on the ground, and beneath this a thick sheet of solid ice. The rain descended as though the flood had come again, carried off the snow, and then, instead of being partially absorbed by the ground, the water all ran down into the streams, converting every one of them into resistless torrents, before which neither dwellings, nor factories, nor bridges, nor railroad-embankments could stand. This immense volume of water all finally found its way into Providence River and Narragansett Bay, and it freshened the water to such an extent that all of the star-fishes perished. In 1887 there were plenty of little star-fishes, but they were too small to do any harm; but this year they are about as destructive as usual.

This examination was not carried as far as was desired, on account of a lack of funds. The people of Connecticut and Rhode

Among the most interesting and important divisions of the scientific work of the Fish Commission during the past season has been the exploration of the interior rivers and lakes of the country for the purpose of ascertaining what indigenous fishes they contain, and obtaining a knowledge of their physical characteristics. Indeed, this work had a twofold object. Besides that already explained, it was desirable to determine the adaptability of these rivers and lakes to the introduction of new fishes of economic value. Illustrative of the importance of this branch of the work, it may be said that requests are frequently received at the Fish Commission office that a certain river or lake be stocked with a particular kind of fish. It cannot be decided whether it will be safe to introduce the fish indicated until it is known what the present inhabitants of the stream or lake are, and whether its physical characteristics are favorable or not. It is useless, of course, to put young and tame fishes into water already inhabited by wild, fierce, predaceous fishes.

The greater part of this work has been conducted under the direction of Pres. David S. Jordan, of the University of Indiana, and one of the most distinguished ichthyologists in the country. His zeal and that of his assistants was not dampened by the fact that they were volunteers, serving without compensation beyond their actual expenses. There are scores of college professors and students advanced in science, who are ambitious to spend the months of their summer vacation in the field, making original investigations. To a majority of such the saving of their expenses is a matter of considerable importance, while the Fish Commission secures the services of men whom it could not afford to hire. The attractiveness of the scientific work of the government, on account of the superior advantages which it offers to those who desire to become specialists, is shown by the eagerness with which positions to which very small salaries are attached, in the United States Geological Survey, are sought, and also by the fact that positions in the National Museum are sought by hundreds of college graduates who are willing to work for salaries that are barely sufficient to pay their board. President Jordan spent the entire summer in the field with his parties, personally devoting himself mainly to the rivers of Virginia, eastern Tennessee, North Carolina, and parts of South Carolina and Indiana. In North Carolina he found a virgin field of exploration in which he had had no predecessor, and a very interesting one it proved to be. Prof. C. H. Gilbert and Dr. J. A. Henshall of Cincinnati carried on a similar kind of work on the Ohio and other rivers of the Ohio valley, and Mr. C. H. Bollman of Indiana was detailed to accompany the party of Michigan explorers sent out by the Fish Commission of that State. Collections and information of the same kind are expected from Illinois, where the naturalists employed by the State were greatly aided by the use of the fishcommission cars, and in return agreed to give to the latter the results of their observations. The relations between the United States Fish Commission and the various State commissions are very cordial, and they are in many ways helpful to each other.

The schooner Grampus' went to the early-mackerel fishinggrounds in the spring for the purpose of observing the arrival of the first shoals of mackerel, and watching their movements as they went north along the coast, and especially the physical changes of the water accompanying those movements. Very important results were obtained. In a general way it may be said that the late arrival of the mackerel last spring was coincident with the lateness in the season, that the temperature of the water remained low, and that the mackerel-food obtained by the use of the towing-net at the surface was less abundant than usual. Observations of the habits of the mackerel were made by the Grampus' at intervals throughout the season and as late as the middle of October. These extended from the coast of Maine to Cape Hatteras.

For many years the temperatures of the waters have been recorded by employees of the Lighthouse Board and the Signal Service

at prominent points along both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and on the principal rivers and the Great Lakes. The results of these observations are now being plotted graphically upon charts by the Fish Commission, and will be published in an early report. It is expected that they will prove of great importance in explaining the distribution and movements of the fishes.

Altogether the result of the Fish Commission's work has been very satisfactory. Much of the scientific study and digestion of material collected during the summer, of course, still remains to be done, and this will be pushed forward in Washington during the months when, as a rule, field-work is impracticable.

MENTAL SCIENCE.

Notes on Hypnotism.

The Paris and Nancy Schools of Hypnotism.— Dr. Bernheim, the leader of the Nancy school, whose classic work we are soon to have in English, contributes to the Revue de l'Hypnotisme, May, 1888, a platform of beliefs. These can be summarized as follows: 1. They do not obtain Charcot's three phases— lethargy, catalepsy, and somnambulism — by any physical manipulation; nor do they find, as Charcot claims, that opening the eyes or rubbing the vertex will cause the patient to pass from one of these stages to another. They do not get the phenomena of transfert (of an affection of one side of the body passing to the other) nor the localization of function by pressing different portions of the cranium, nor any purely physiological result. On the other hand, they easily get all these results by a slight suggestion. If the subject has heard of or witnessed the expected results, it is sufficient. Again: the unconsciousness of lethargy is apparent only, the subject being open to suggestions at any stage. 2. In hysteria magna the hypnotic phenomena are the same as in normal subjects, the three stages, etc., being equally illusory. 3. Hysterical subjects are not good for the study of hypnotism. They introduce neurotic and other foreign symptoms, and vitiate the purity of the results. 4. The hypnotic state is not a neurotic one. The phenomena are natural, are of a psychological origin, and can be developed from natural sleep. 5. Neurotic patients are not more ready subjects than others, the wards of hospitals representing all types of diseases, furnishing an equal number of good subjects. 6. Not all subjects are purely automata played upon by the operator: more or less resistance is frequent, and the individuality partially remains. 7. All methods of hypnotization depend upon suggestion. Physical methods, especially hypnogenetic zones, do not exist except as the results of suggestion. 8. Suggestion is the key to all the phenomena, and careful study with new subjects will prove it so. Moreover, the large percentage (eighty) of subjects among normal persons found at Nancy is not due to a mental contagion, but to a skill in applying the suggestion. This position is rapidly gaining adherence above that of Charcot and the Paris school, which it opposes on all the above points.

A New Hypnotic Phenomenon. M. Liegois contributes to the August number of the same periodical an article describing a new hypnotic phenomenon, in the field of a 'negative hallucination.' This term describes a state in which the suggestion that a certain person, a certain object in the field of vision, remains unseen, has been obeyed. The state is explained as an annihilation of the perception as it reaches consciousness. The impression is received, but ignored. Having a third party to suggest to one of his subjects that he will be invisible to her, it is found that she does not hear him, see him, or even feel the prick of a pin when he holds the pin, re-acting normally to all other persons. If, however, M. Liegois calls out impersonally, "Camille feels thirsty, Camille will drink a glass of water," she hears and obeys the command; if similarly told to stand at his side, she does so; and so on for every sense. While she does not hear him, she none the less really can hear him. There is a sort of dual personality, one half of which obeys the negative suggestion, while the other is automatically regulated, and obeys any suggestion not directly in conflict with a previous one. The further development of this study promises interesting results. Hygienic Aspects of Hypnotism. Upon the hygienic side. we find the discussion of the prohibition of public hypnotic performances. The Academy of Medicine of Belgium held a long dis

cussion upon the question, and finally voted to recommend a law abolishing it. The chief advocate in favor of the exhibitions was M. Delboeuf. Belgium thus follows the action of Austria, Italy, Denmark, Germany, and most of the Swiss, cantons. The people have been strongly impressed with the dangers of an unskilled use of hypnotism, and a healthy sentiment to have it restricted to experts prevails. At the last session of the French Association for the Advancement of Science, M. Berillon introduced a similar measure, and it was voted as the sentiment of the section of hygiene and public medicine that all public exhibitions of hypnotism should be legally prohibited in France.

Miscellaneous. - Considerable space is taken up in the same periodical with the discussion of phenomena whose genuineness is not recognized, particularly with Dr. Luy's experiments upon the action of drugs at a distance. A committee of the Academy of Medicine was appointed to examine the correctness of Dr. Luy's conclusions, and they find unconscious suggestion to be at the basis of it all. When the contents of the vials containing the drugs were unknown to those present, the subject also failed to be appropriately affected by them. So, again, these pretended mysteries fall to the ground, and exemplify the pitfalls of the subject as well as the uncritical nature of methods often adopted by eminent scientists. Mention should also be made of the fact that the Church has recently entered into relations with hypnotism by a letter from the Bishop of Madrid, warning his brethren against the evils of the new movement, and placing it in line with the forbidden treatment of miracles.

Abnormal Sense-Perceptions.

Sound-Blindness. - Recent observations have emphasized the fact that many persons are defective in the distinctness of their perceptions, while others form peculiar links between perceptions of different senses. An illustration of the former is what has been rather falsely termed 'sound-blindness.' This condition refers to the defective hearing of sounds; so that, in the same way as the color-blind fail to distinguish between to us utterly distinct impressions, the sound-blind fail to make distinctions perfectly evident to ordinary ears. A Boston lady, Sara E. Wiltse, has recently tested the powers of Boston school-children in this direction (American Journal of Psychology, No. 4). Standing on the teacher's platform, she repeated the following words as distinctly as possible to 259 boys of the Latin School, aged from twelve to twenty years: 'ultramarine,' altruistic,' 'frustrate,' 'ultimatum,' 'ululate,'' Alcibiades,' ' unaugmented.' The words were repeated as often as required, some as often as five times, and ample time was given for the writing of the words. 84 of the boys made mistakes in the vowel-sounds, such as 'ultruistic,' 'frostrate,'' altimatum,'' elulate,' 'olulate,'' alulate,' 'unolmented.' That these 84 were really defective, was shown by the further test, in which the following words were read to them but once; viz., 'fan,' 'log,'' long,' 'pen,'' dog,' 'pod,' 'land,' 'few,' 'cat:' for only 4 of the 84 spelled these monosyllables correctly. For fan,' there appeared 'than,' 'thank,' 'fanned,'' clam,' 'thang,' and 'fam;' for 'log,' 'glove,' 'clog,' 'lug,' 'love,' ' land,' ' long,'' knob;' for‘long,' ́lung,' lown,' lone,' ' lawn,* 'land,' 'log,' 'loud,' lamp;' for 'pen,' 'penned,' 'pan,' 'paint,' 'hen,' 'ten ;' for 'dog,'' dove,'' dug,' 'dot;' for 'pod,' 'hour,'' heart,* 'hog,'' hod,' 'hard,' ' fod,' 'thod,' 'fog,' 'bog,' 'pug,' ' part,' 'plot,' 'pard,' long, bog;' for land,' lamb,' 'lend,' lamp.' lambed," 'blend,'' hen,' 'can;' for 'few,' 'frew,' 'fuse,' 'pew,'' pen.' 'Cat' was correctly understood in every case. Of the 80, only 2 were found to be hard of hearing, suggesting that the others were more or less sound-blind.' So, again, of 223 boys of the English High School at Boston, 105 misspelled one or more of the polysyllables. In the Comins Grammar School, where the pupils were between the ages of eight and fourteen, only 34 of the 530 spelled all the monosyllables correctly. These pupils were tested under good conditions, and five were found to be deaf to the sound of a tuning-fork, though the teacher was unaware of the defect. For fan,' 7 different words and 2 blanks were given (a blank indicating an entire failure to understand the word), the total number of mishearings being 17; for 'log,' 17 different words and 10 blanks, involving 86 mishearings, the word being understood as 'love' 65 times; for 'long,' 14 words and 11 blanks, with 22 errors; for 'pen,' 18 words and 12 blanks, with 135 errors, of which 48 made the word 'hen,'

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and 47 'pan;' for dog,' 6 words and 1 blank, with 10 errors; for 'pod,' 51 words and 64 blanks, with 270 errors, of which 'hog' is responsible for 85, 'hod' for 36, 'pog' for 26, 'hard' for 25; for 'land,' 14 words and 12 blanks, with 63 errors, the word being written 'lamb' 42 times; for 'few,' 11 words and 10 blanks, with 15 errors; for cat, 5 words, no blanks, and 5 errors. Of course, these errors may be due to defects elsewhere than in the power of sound-discrimination, e.g., in the power of translating auditory into visual symbols; but the variety and nature of the errors are certainly interesting. If we classify the nature of the confusions, we find that in the vowel-sounds, a, as in 'fan' and' cat,' is most apt to be heard as a long 8 of 16 times; that the e of 'pen' is heard as a short a 69 of 84 times; the o of dog,' 'log,' 'long,'' pod,' as a short u 83 of 132 times; while the ew of few' is about equally often regarded as various other sounds. With regard to consonants, d, as in 'dog,' 'pod,' becomes hard g 132 of 199 times; the g of 'dog' becomes v 67 of 82 times; the p of 'pen,' etc., becomes h 240 of 278 times; the n of 'pen,' etc., becomes m 56 of 78 times; the ng of 'long' becomes n 7 of 15 times; while h, t, and hard c have no sounds with which they are specially confused. These facts should be of some importance to philologists, and will perhaps agree with the laws of language and dialect transformations.

Color and Taste. - The peculiar association of a color with a sound by which a certain sound will at once vividly arouse a definite color, is quite normal, and has of recent years been frequently described. The association of color with smells is a much rarer phenomenon, and of color with tastes perhaps rarer still. Dr. Férè gives an account of a woman, who, after taking vinegar, saw every thing red for a few minutes, and then every thing as bright green for more than an hour. Dr. Férè explains this as due to a similarity in the subsidiary emotional effects accompanying the sensation.

HEALTH MATTERS.

Use of Tobacco.

C. W. LYMAN, in a communication to the New York Medical Journal, discusses in a very entertaining way, tobacco, its use and abuse. Tobacco, he says, contains an acrid, dark-brown oil, an alkaloid, nicotine, and another substance called nicotianine, in which exist its odorous and volatile principles. This description of the active principles of tobacco is of importance to smokers; for, when tobacco is burned, a new set of substances is produced, some of which are less harmful than the nicotine, and are more agreeable in effect, and much of the acrid oil — a substance quite as irritating and poisonous as nicotine is carried off. These fire-produced substances are called, from their origin, the 'pyridine series.' By great heat the more aromatic and less harmful members of the series are produced, but the more poisonous compounds are generated by the slow combustion of damp tobacco. This oil which is liberated by combustion is bad both in flavor and in effect, and it is better, even for the immediate pleasure of the smoker, that it should be excluded altogether from his mouth and air-passages. Smoking in a stub of a pipe is particularly injurious, for the reason that in it the oil is stored in a condensed form, and the smoke is therefore highly charged with the oil. Sucking or chewing the stub of a cigar that one is smoking is a serious mistake, because the nicotine in the unburned tobacco dissolves freely in the saliva, and is absorbed. Chewing' is on this account the most injurious form of the tobacco habit, and the use of a cigar-holder is an improvement on the custom of holding the cigar between the teeth. Cigarettes are responsible for a great amount of mischief, not because the smoke from the paper has any particularly evil effect, but because smokers and they are often boys or very young men are apt to use them continuously or at frequent intervals, believing that their power for evil is insignificant. Thus the nerves are under the constant influence of the drug, and much injury to the system results. Moreover, the cigarette-smoker uses a very considerable amount of tobacco during the course of a day. 'Dipping' and 'snuffing' are semi-barbarities which need not be discussed. Not much effect is obtained from the use of the drug in these varieties of the habit.

Nicotine is one of the most powerful of the nerve-poisons' known. Its virulence is compared to that of prussic acid. If birds

be made to inhale its vapor in amounts too small to be measured, they are almost instantly killed. It seems to destroy life, not by attacking a few, but all of the functions essential to it, beginning at the centre, the heart. A significant indication of this is that there is no substance known which can counteract its effects: the system either succumbs or survives. Its depressing action on the heart is by far the most noticeable and noteworthy symptom of nicotine-poisoning. The frequent existence of what is known as 'smoker's heart' in men whose health is in no other respect disturbed is due to this fact.

Those who can use tobacco without immediate injury will have all the pleasant effects reversed, and will suffer from the symptoms of poisoning if they exceed the limits of tolerance. These symptoms are: 1. The heart's action becomes more rapid when tobacco is used; 2. Palpitation, pain, or unusual sensations in the heart; 3. There is no appetite in the morning, the tongue is coated, delicate flavors are not appreciated, and acid dyspepsia occurs after eating; 4. Soreness of the mouth and throat, or nasal catarrh, appears, and becomes very troublesome; 5. The eyesight becomes poor, but improves when the habit is abandoned; 6. A desire, often a craving, for liquor or some other stimulant, is experienced.

In an experimental observation of thirty-eight boys of all classes of society, and of average health, who had been using tobacco for periods ranging from two months to two years, twenty-seven showed severe injury to the constitution and insufficient growth; thirty-two showed the existence of irregularity of the heart's action, disordered stomachs, cough, and a craving for alcohol; thirteen had intermittency of the pulse; and one had consumption. After they had abandoned the use of tobacco, within six months' time one-half were free from all their former symptoms, and the remainder had recovered by the end of the year.

A great majority of men go far beyond what may be called the temperate use of tobacco, and evidences of injury are easily found. It is only necessary to have some record of what the general health was previous to the taking-up of the habit, and to have observation cover a long enough time. The history of tobacco in the island of New Zealand furnishes a quite suggestive illustration for our purpose, and one on a large scale. When Europeans first visited New Zealand, they found in the native Maoris the most finely developed and powerful men of any of the tribes inhabiting the islands of the Pacific. Since the introduction of tobacco, for which the Maoris developed a passionate liking, they have from this cause alone, it is said, become decimated in numbers, and at the same time reduced in stature and in physical well-being so as to be an altogether inferior type of men.

ELECTRICAL SCIENCE.

Some New Tests of Secondary Batteries.

IN the last two years the improvements in storage-batteries have been such as to indicate the near approach of the time when they can be economically used for street-car work. Indeed, it is now a question whether, under favorable conditions, they cannot advantageously replace horses; and the result of the experiments on the Fourth Avenue Road in New York, where ten storage-cars will soon be regularly operated, will be awaited with interest.

Dr. A. von Waltenhofen, in the Centralblatt für Electrotechnik, gives the results of some interesting experiments on the FarbakySchenck accumulators that have a direct bearing on the subject of electric traction. But before giving the results, it is well to call to mind the points in which the present storage-cells are lacking. The principal point is in the small discharge-rate, necessitating a large number of cells being carried by each car (from 3,200 to 4,500 pounds), a corresponding increase in the weight of the car itself to give the strength necessary to sustain this increased weight, a larger outlay for battery and a corresponding depreciation, a greater power to move the greater weight, and the necessity of re-laying much of the track now in use with heavier rails and a better roadbed. For instance: the weight of an ordinary 16-foot car is from 6,000 to 7,000 pounds. Equipped with motors and storagebattery, the weight is about 13,000 pounds. A car equipped with this weight of battery can be run for from 45 to 60 miles, depending on the conditions of the track and the type of equipment.

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Now, what is wanted is a cell with, say, the same storage-capacity and weight, even with the same rate of depreciation, — but which has a normal rate of discharge and charge of four or five times that of the present type. We could then use from 1,000 to 1,500 pounds of battery on a car, enough to make one or two round trips, reduce the total weight of the car to 9,000 pounds, decrease the investment and cost of renewal three or four times, and allow the present car bodies and tracks to be used without any considerable alteration. Under these circumstances (and there is no doubt the conditions will be sooner or later attained), street-car traction by secondary batteries would be an assured and immediate success for any ordinary condition of grade.

Dr. von Waltenhofen's experiments are of interest in this connection, because of the very rapid discharges to which he subjected the Farbaky-Schenck cell, with apparently excellent results as to efficiency and freedom from harmful effects. The cell in question had seven positive and six negative plates, weighing 47 pounds, the total weight of the cell being about 60 pounds. It was constructed with a view to discharging it at 100 ampères, five times the normal rate. The plates of this type of storage-cell have been described in this journal. They are of a modified 'grid' form, the holes being filled with a mixture of red lead and coke, or other porous material, moistened with sulphuric acid.

The cell was first completely charged, and then discharged at a rate of 100 ampères, until the potential difference at the terminals fell from 1.87 to 1.78 volts. The capacity was 166 ampère hours. Then the cell was charged at 20 ampères, and discharged at 100 ampères as before, but only 100 ampère hours were put in. 88 ampère hours were returned, giving an efficiency in ampère hours of 88 per cent. In total energy the efficiency was 77 per cent. It is evident, however, that these figures are much higher than would be obtained if the cell was fully charged. In another experiment the discharge-rate was increased to 200 ampères, the cell was charged with 200 ampère hours, and the output was about 130 ampère hours, - a current efficiency of 65 per cent, with a total efficiency of from 45 to 50 per cent. It is stated that neither of these discharges injured the cell in any way. A current of 300 ampères was then tried, and the cell kept up its potential difference reasonably well for about fifteen minutes. As to the effect the author says, "Whether this great over-exertion has been injurious to the accumulator, Messrs. Farbaky and Schenck do not state; but our experiments have shown that the cell can be discharged without injury at 200 ampères."

The author compares the performance of several types of cells, from which we get the following data:

Farbaky and Schenck. — Capacity per pound of plate, 3.5 ampère hours; discharge-rate per pound, 2.1 ampères; total efficiency, 77 per cent (?).

Reckenzaun. - Capacity per pound of plate, 4.1 ampère hours; discharge-rate per pound, .37 of an ampère; total efficiency, 81 per

cent.

Julien. - Capacity per pound of plate, 4.2 ampère hours; discharge-rate per pound, .42 of an ampère; total efficiency, 83.5 per

cent.

Tudor (at a practical discharge-rate). - Capacity per pound of plate, 1.3 ampère hours; discharge-rate per pound, .33 of an ampère; total efficiency, 68.6 per cent.

These figures of Dr. von Waltenhofen for the Farbaky-Schenck accumulator mark an advance, and an advance that is in the right direction; but it is greatly to be regretted that the most important fact that is brought forward, namely, that the cells are not injured by such high discharge-rates, rests on a bare assertion, and no figures are given to show that a number of such discharges extending over a considerable period have been attempted.

NEW METHOD OF PRODUCING ELECTRIC CURRENTS. C. Braun, in the Berichte der Berliner Akademie, describes a new method of producing electric currents. A wire of nickel is twisted into a spiral, and the two ends are connected with the terminals of a sensitive galvanometer. When the spiral is suddenly pulled out, there is a deflection of the galvanometer; and, when it is compressed, there is a deflection in the opposite direction. The direction of the current in a connected wire is determined by the direction of the twist as looked at from the end to which the wire is connected.

It is stated that the effects cannot be accounted for by induction. A heating or cooling of the wire as a whole produces the same effects. If the wire is annealed, it loses its power of giving a current, but regains it again on being stretched. The effect is not large enough in diamagnetic bodies to be observed with any certainty. It seems to exist in iron and steel, but other effects make the observations difficult. If these effects exist at all, and are not due to induction, they are probably caused by the different strains on the outside and inside of a spire of the wire. It is stated that if the wire be magnetized the effect is greatly augmented.

66

SOME CURIOUS INCANDESCENT LAMP PHENOMENA.-The Electrical World publishes a letter from F. J. Crouch describing some curious effects obtained with incandescent lamps, both of whose terminals were joined to the circuit of an alternating-current dynamo. The circuit of the dynamo is made through a resistance of about 2,000 ohms (the electro-motive force is not stated). To the leads on one side of the resistance are attached both terminals of some Bernstein incandescent lamps, whose bulbs are immersed in tumblers of salt water. From the other side of the resistance, and therefore at a potential differing greatly from that of the lamps, wires are brought to the tumblers and dipped in the water. Now, when the dynamo is started, the light appears, and the light-waves pass through the glass." The light is described as "similar to that of the glow-worm or firefly. With three Bernstein lamps, I obtained a beautiful moonlight effect, sufficient to read by in a large room." Another interesting phenomenon has been brought out in a series of letters to the same paper. It is found that incandescent lamps in the vicinity of belts or apparatus giving considerable statical discharges have a very short life. The writer has tried a few experiments to verify this. On holding near a Weston lamp (110 volts) the end of a wire connected with a Holtz machine, if the lamp be burning and the machine is turned rapidly, the filament will break in from one to five minutes. In the first lamp experimented on there was a very marked vibration of the filament, being more violent when the negative pole of the Holtz machine was presented. Some This lasted for perhaps a minute, when the filament broke. other lamps were experimented on in which there was no vibration of the filament that could be noticed; still they broke in a short time. The effect is of some practical importance in paper and other mills, and the life of the lamps can be greatly increased by putting over the bulb a wire netting connected with the earth. If the net be made of polished wire, — German silver, for instance, there will be little or no loss of light.

BOOK-REVIEWS.

Literature in School. By HORACE E. SCUDDER. Boston and New York, Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 16. 15 cents.

Of the many reforms now being urged in school matters, one of the most commendable, and one which appeals to the best sense of the community, is that which urges the replacing of the literary mess now offered to the child in the usual school-reader by works of literature which have won for themselves a place. In this movement Mr. Horace E. Scudder of Cambridge has taken and is taking a leading part. Not only has he written forcibly and well on the subject, but he has himself prepared various editions of standard works fit for use in the school-room. In the present pamphlet Mr. Scudder prints his address on the subject of Literature in Common-School Education,' read before the National Education Association at its meeting in San Francisco in July last, and his two papers on Nursery Classics' and 'American Classics' respectively, which have recently appeared in the Atlantic Monthly. Mr. Scudder points out that literature has a field and an office of its own, and, unless it is recognized in the school, the place which it should take must remain unfilled. Literature gives expression to the spiritual and non-material wants of man, and must be brought into the foreground to counterbalance the tyranny of materialism, which bids fair, unless checked, to increase year by year. Mr. Scudder does not mean by the reading of literature in school the critical study of great authors. To urge that, would be to place a weapon in the hands of his opponents; but he says (p. 31), "The place, then, of literature in our common-school education, is in