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The Evolution of the Teachers' Institute.

BY CHAS. H. ALLEN.

As soon as the fact became well recognized that teachers are made, not born, and that there is a science of education and an art of teaching, thoughtful educational men like Horace Mann, Henry Barnard and D. P. Page, together with many others less widely known, set about finding ways and means for giving to those engaged in, or about to engage in teaching, some special training for their work. The most ready means that suggested itself as available was the teachers' institute. It was, of course, understood that as these sessions must necessarily be of short duration, no great amount of training could be given and but little of knowledge, but one of the leading thoughts was to inspire those who came together with a love for the work and an ambition to excel.

At that time there were few trained teachers. The best qualified pupils from the common schools, as all rural schools were designated, were usually selected as teachers; many times, in the same schools in which they had been pupils. The only guidance these young teachers had was the remembrance of how the last, or possibly the "best-liked" teacher had managed the school, and taught them. And as it usually happened that the better the teacher the better he was liked, the schools were not so bad, as a whole, as we should now think they would have been. There were, however, ruts, and very deep ones, too. Now and again a student from some academy, or an under-graduate from some college was employed, but few of these found their way into the rural schools. Until the era of the institute dawned, the school; all plodded along in the same old way, and did the same old work.

The teacher put in his six hours hearing lessons (from a text-book in hand, of course), the only diversion being the necessary work of disciplining the schools. In New England, where my early school days were passed, this was not an easy task. I became well acquainted with the fool's-cap and dunce block, the ferule and the rod; and the acquaintance was often a very personal one.

With the first institute there came a change. It was largely brought about by giving to those attending, a new ideal; an ideal school toward which to work. We were made to see clearly that schools could be bettered, and at the same time we were inspired to try to better our own schools. We were given instruction in methods of discipline and in methods of teaching. As must always be the case, some of these methods were good, and some were indifferent; some we could comprehend and possibly use, and some we could not. But most of us made the attempt. The best result accomplished was that it set us to thinking-made us unsatisfied, often dissatisfied with our present work. When this happens, advancement is not slow to follow. We referred again and again to our note books, compared notes with each other, visited each other's schools, in short, became interested in our work. Three educational works came into use: Abbot's Teacher, Hugh Miller's "My School and School Masters, "' and later Page's "Theory and Practice of Teaching.' The teaching-world moved.

At the institute held by Page in Chautauqua County, New York, he gave us evening lectures, or talks on hygiene and on the rules that should be observed in social intercourse, both of which were sadly needed. He was a man who could talk plain English plainly, and yet so delicately as neither to hurt nor offend. One of his suggestions was so pointed, and as many years' observations have convinced me, so necessary, that I venture to repeat it: "When making an evening call," said he, "at the proper hour to go (and do not make it too late), bid your hostess good night, get your hat and-go," with an emphasis on the last word that I have never forgotten.

course.

Of course, in the beginning it was difficult, often impossible, as it is to-day, to get really well qualified men to do institute work. Given the right kind of a leader and a good institute follows as a matter of Where the services of normal school teachers could be had they were selected, and in default of these, superintendents and teachers of wide and successful experience were engaged. There was no "institute fund" for some years, and the work was usually gratuitous, altho those in attendance often made up a purse for the conductor, or made some other acknowledgments of their appreciation of his work. Attendance was not obligatory, cut, as for the shorter institutes the teachers were entertained without cost by the citizens of the hamlet where they met, most unemployed teachers, and young per ons expecting to become teachers, attended, and in most cases there was a fairly large assemblage. In recognition of the free entertainments, evening lectures or programs were provided, of a more general nature, and there was often a generous rivalry among the villages to see which should have the institute; and institute week was reckoned an event long to be remembered. From these somewhat crude beginnings, faulty in many respects, yet always earnest, institute work has grown to enormous proportions. Legislative aid when asked, was readily granted, and men who had the interests of the public schools at heart began to bring them into more systematic, and therefore more productive form. Funds were provided to pay qualified conductors and instructors, and attendance upon them was, in many cases, made obligatory.

Superintendents of Public Instruction in many States arranged series of institutes-one or more in each county, and secured the services of competent persons to give instruction in them. These selections were made largely from the faculties of normal schools, and in some of the States to-day, one member of each faculty is designated "Institute Conductor," his duty being to conduct all teachers' institutes held in his district. As is usually the case in all such matters, there have been errors and occasional set-backs. In a future article I shall speak of these, and from the standpoint of one who has conducted nearly a

thousand institutes, in no one of which have I ever seen even an approximation to the state of things given by Mr. Brown, in the August JOURNAL, shall make some suggestions about institute work, based upon wide observations and considerable experience.

The Need of Hospitality in the School.

Extract from an Address by Jennie L. Havice, San Diego, Cal.

I shall relate a little incident that came to my notice, not in a fault-finding way, but hoping to bring about a little more "Hospitality in the schools." A timid girl of tender years was transferred from a small school, where she had been a favorite, to a larger one. Finding no one to play or speak with she frequently went home and with tears begged to be allowed to stay at home. One day she made bold to go up to another girl and slipped her hand timidly in hers. But the girl, who should have been taught at home and in school to be polite to strangers, said: "Oh, go away; I don't want to play with you!"' Result: A child's heart broken (as hearts break), and more tears when she reached mamma's circling arms. Then, too, there is much jeering and too much jesting after repeated jeers. I heard some girls call, "Oh, come on; we are only funning," but I knew the iron had entered that little soul and there would be no more happy-hearted play that day.

In Mrs. Clark's series of books for children we find such remarks as these: "She had better go back to the ark and tell Mrs. Noah," and "Oh, that little Mother Hubbard," or, "She's a grandmother cut down." You have all heard like remarks made about new scholars and I know them to be considerably worse in some schools. Miss Jerusha Runnel, about whom they were made, came from "Shy Corner," and she came out all right, but there was one girl in that school whose mother was what we, as mothers, should be, and she remembered that mamma says: "We must always be polite to strangers."

So you see there is need of hospitality in the schools. In the home what grace is like unto it? How we admire the woman who opens wide her door and says "Come in," and what insight do you get of the woman who opens the door a little way and peers out to see who or what you are. It is all right to draw the line, but don't do it with the one who knocks timidly at your door. Open it wide and let her in, even tho later you do have to kick her out.

Do not be too much concerned about your children making friends with "little nobodys." Teach them rather true politeness, which is the same as culture and refinement. Give them the best education pos sible, and in the end, as water seeks its level, they will seek their friends, tho they do have to go over some rough grounds to find them. The rocks and pebbles over which water flows help to make it bright and sparkling, so contact with other natures will help the child in a way we otherwise cannot. Let your house be open to their little schoolmates and playmates. The doors to evil you know not of, may open and close upon them and their souls be sullied when it should be only the carpets.

There is need also to emulate the pleasant manners of pleasant people we meet. No matter who says it, it is always a compliment to have it said of you, "She is always so pleasant." I once knew a lady whose smile I shall never forget, but shall try to emulate. She had neither wealth nor great fame, but she could talk intelligently. (To do this you must belong to at least one club, presumably a mothers' club.) She was always hospitably kind, kept herself well informed, and remembered items of interest to friends and people she was likely to meet. Do you wonder that everybody loved her? But she had nothing to trouble her, you say. She had a world of it, just as you and I have to-day, but she seldom spoke of it. She had enough intelligence to cover it. I remember being in the midst of some tiresome work, ready to drop with despair when I thought how I should like to go to her and then of how her face would light up with that pleasant expression that always met yours. I thought of how she would talk and listen and soon I found that my thoughts were in a healthier vein and that I was thus enabled to finish the work calmly and without complaint, Can you make of yourself such a friend?

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Model Schools of a Model County.

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At a recent meeting of the N. E. A. the State Superintendent of Public Instruction of Missouri discribed the typical country schools of the Eastern States.

He spoke of the dilapidated fe ces, the littered yards, the shattered shutters, the leaning chimneys, the outhouses, sentinels of immodesty, and the inside of the school house like the inside of a barn.

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As a strong contrast to this picture of the Eastern rural school, we present the photographic reproductions of several of the schools of Ventura County. There are many counties in the State that could make an equally good showing as Ventura. Superintendent Sackett is proud of the record that Ventura County has made, and these illustrations are taken to show what fine educational homes the children of Ventura County have. No better investment can be made than that of providing the children with pleasant surroundings. SUPT. GEO. L. SACKETT. Ventura County has valued this. A Study of the following statistics, as typical of our California Schools, should be of interest to all.

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81

Total valuation of apparatus......

Number of grammar departments.........

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Number of primary departments.......

36

Number of girls enrolled in primary and grammar schools.. Total enrollment.............

Number of boys enrolled in primary and grammar schools..

1669

Total valuation of grammar and primary property.. Total number of volumes in school libraries... Bonded or other indebtedness.......

1524

Average number belonging.....

Average daily attendance.....

3193 2264 2238

Percentage of attendance on average number belonging..

.............

Number of School visits made by school superintendent.. Number of school visits made by school trustees.

Number of visits made by other persons.......

Average number of months school was maintained.

98 141 152 1597 9.07

Length of time in months the same teacher has taught school.. Male teachers in primary and grammar grades...

20

$159,486 00 10,537.00 6,019.00

20,140 $33,866.66

Total number of school houses 59. Average monthly salary paid to male teachers, $75.00; female teachers, $63.36. Number of normal school graduates, 42. Rate of school tax, 37 cents. Privato schools in the county, 2; number of private school teachers, 10; number of private school pupils, 52. Number of districts supplied with the "American Flag" 38; number not supplied, 15.

Number high schools, 2; male teachers, 5; female teachers, 5; male pupils, 117; female pupils, 203. Total valuation of high school property, $22,886.00; teachers' salaries, $8.750.00; contingent expenses, $5,908.28. Average monthly salary, male, $113.75; female, $83.00.

.... $176,042 00

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Number of female teachers in primary and grammar grades........ Average salary paid.......

63

............$66.00

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AVENUE DISTRICT.

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Candidates for Superintendent of Public Instruction.

[The readers of the JOURNAL will be interested in knowing the claims of the candidates for Superintendent of Public Instruction. For this reason we present their pictures and a brief biography of each.]

Thos. J. Kirk has been an active citizen and educator. The following bare statement of facts connected with his career will give a better idea than any flourish of rhetoric, or the usual campaign praise can possibly do.

Thos. J. Kirk, Republican candidate for Superintendent of Public Instruction, was born near Richmond, Ray County, Missouri, September 9, 1852. Lived on his father's farm in Sullivan County, Missouri, and attended the public schools and some private schools of that State until sixteen years of age, when he entered the Normal School at Kirksville, and there was under the tuition of Dr. Joseph Baldwin, Prof. J. M. Greenwood and other celebrated educators.

Mr. Kirk taught his first school in the fall of 1870, in a suburban district of the City of Kirksville. He alternated teaching and study at Kirksville Normal for about four years.

He came to California in February, 1873, and at once engaged in teaching in Colusa County. To become better acquainted with California school methods, he entered the State Normal School at San Jose and was a member of the senior class of 1874-5.

In July, of 1875 he came to Fresno County and taught a term of eleven consecutive months and then made a visit to Edina, Missouri, where in August, 1876, he married Miss Julia Bryant. Returned to Fresno County and taught two years. During the school year of 187980, he, as principal, and his wife as assistant, taught the school at Warm Springs, Alameda County. Elected principal of Fresno City Schools and returned to Fresno in August, 1880. Principal Fresno Schools 1880-81-82. Failing health caused his resignation, and from 1882 to 1884 was engaged in the boot and shoe business in Fresno.

In March, 1884, joined h s brother in manufacturing business at Peoria, Illinois; returned to Fresno in 1888. Member and secretary of City Board 1888 to 1890. Elected County Superintendent 1890; reelected 1894. President State Teachers' Association 1893.

An Estimate of His Character and Ability.

Supt. Kirk achieved a State reputation as a worker in 1892, when he secured the California Teachers' Association for Fresno. As President of the Association in 1893, he was a model presiding officer, impartial, energetic, and commanded the respect of the assembly. As an organizer and conductor of his teachers' institutes he is without a peer in the State.

As a Superintendent of Schools he has made an excellent record as an executive officer; applying strict business methods to the detail work of the office. In educational work, as an inspector of schools, he is critical, just, and kind. The course of study is on the newest lines of educational progress. His public addresses are always carefully prepared and touch upon vital questions connected with school work. He is very unassuming as a speaker and depends largely upon what he says rather than how he says it.

Supt. Kirk's personality is very agreeable, modest, approachable, with excellent command of himself and his time. He seldom gives one the impression of being in a hurry, and yet is a man who gets a great deal of work behind him. Mr. Kirk has a delightful home, a charming wife, two beautiful daughters and a son.

Christian Runckel, the fusion candidate for Superintendent of Public Instruction, is a native of California. He was born at Dutch Flat, Placer County, and is of German descent. He attended the public schools of that county, and afterward took the normal course in the Sierra Normal College at Auburn. He began teaching at the age of 18, and at 20 years of age was chosen Principal of the Forest Hill School in Placer County. For the past eight years he has been Principal of the Dutch Flat Grammar School. He has had several years' experience as a member of the Placer County Board of Education, of which he is now a member. Mr. Runckel has twice declined to be a candidate for County Superintendent. His nomination for State Superintendent by the Populist Convention was made without his solicitation or knowledge. The first intimation Mr. Runckel had of his nomination came thru the daily papers. Mr. Runckel holds a life diploma, is a progressive, conscientious teacher, understands the needs of the public schools and has the courage to fight for any measure that will benefit or improve the public school system of the State.

In addition to his school work, Mr. Runckel has had three years' experience as a newspaper man. The Colfax Sentinel, during his proprietorship, was a strong and fearless advocate of the mining interests, and led the fight against the usurpation of mineral lands by the Southern Pacific. During these three years Mr. Runckel was also Secretary of the Placer County Miners' Association. The active interest and support of Placer County at the time did much to bring about the present satisfactory conditions of mining legislation, both Federal and

State.

An Estimate of His Character by a Well Known Educator. Christian Runckel, the Populist and Democratic nominee for State Superintendent of Public Instruction, was born in the famous mining town of Dutch Flat, Placer County, on the 27th day of July, 1868. Sprung from hardy, industrious, liberty-loving German stock, like his ancestors, Chris. Runckel, all thru the years of his manhood has openly and persistently fought the agents of oppression and greed. His love of liberty and independence, his respect for the rights of others, and his native manliness, have been nurtured and strengthened by the subwho have learned the secrets of the mountains and given their wealth lime scenery af the Sierras and by the free, generous spirits of the men

to the world.

Born of poor parents, fourth son of a family of nine children, his life has been a struggle. When about to enter the State University at the age of 18, he discovered the fact that his father was hopelessly in debt. In fact was about to be declared insolvent. When young Runckel found this condition, he sacrificed the dream of his life, a university education, on the altar of his family name. He took charge of his father's affairs, and for over seven years, every spare cent he earned in teaching went to pay bis parent's debts. Notwithstanding these adverse circumstances, he has succeeded where more favored sons have failed. His native ability, integrity and industry have been the elements of his success. The word fail is not found in his dictionary. Tolerant of the opinions of others, Mr. Runckel has ever believed and has always acted up to his belief that every man should be allowed the free and full exercise of his political and religious opinions.

O. F. SEAVY.

SCHOOL DEPARTMENT,

EDITED BY CHAS. H. ALLEN.

TALKS ABOUT WATER-NO. V.

I should tell you about some other forms of water as a solid, for they are very interesting, and many of the children in California are but little acquainted with them.

Snow.

When the particles of water that, at a higher temperature would fall as rain, pass through currents of air at 32 degrees or below, they are frozen and fall as snow.

This freezing, you already know, crystallizes the water, sometimes in forms more beautiful than the finest fretwork of ivory. Look at the following pictures of snow-flakes and notice their beauty and symmetry.

It is not often, in most latitudes, that these flakes reach the earth in their perfect form. You will notice that they are very fine, and ice is fragile-easily broken.

So it happens, if the wind blows, the flakes are broken by coming in contact one with another; or, if in falling they pass thru a stratum of warm air, as they often do, the fine points of the crystals are melted off.

It now and then happens on a cold still day that it snows, and then you can catch the crystals on a piece of black cloth and examine them. They are more beautiful than any pictures of them that I have ever seen.

In this process of congelation remember there is an expansion, that is, the snow occupies far more space than the water would trom which it is made; even when snow is quite solid it takes several inches of it to make an inch of water.

air

Snow being very porous-containing a large quantity of among its particles, and confined

have a frost, and we learn, even in California, that a frost is often very destructive.

A frost occurs, then, when it is so cold that the moisture in the air (and you will remember that the air contains moisture, sometimes a large quantity of it) is frozen. I have already told you about the congelation of the moisture in plants, which will happen if the thermometer goes much below 32 degrees.

The moisture in the air, as it congeals, is deposited on the surface of the earth, and as the tiny crystals are fine they appear white. This makes the white or hoar frost. When there is but little moisture in the stratum of air next the earth, and the thermometer goes below 32 degrees, it treezes, all the same, but the white crystals are not deposited. This is what is called a "black" frost-altho it is not black.

Farmers, and especially fruit growers, say that a black frost is the most destructive, and this is true. Study it up and see if you can see why; if not, ask your teacher to tell you. The reasons have all been given in these talks.

Frost is the sprite, the fairy, the veritable Puck of the weather bureau. I had it in mind to give you a description of his pranks, but find them so well told in a poem that we used to sing, years ago, that I will give that instead. I re

I can assure you that the pictures are not overdrawn. the delicate tracery of his chilly fingers, even if at times he did cognize them all, for as a boy I enjoyed intensely the study of nip my nose, or paint my ears an alabaster white.

The frost looked forth one still, clear night
And whispered, "Now I shall be out of sight,
So thru the valley and over the hight

SNOWFLAKES

air being a very poor conductor of heat, it is a warm covering for the earth, and the snow huts of the Esquimos are, so far as temperature is concerned, quite comfortable.

As with ice, so with snow, a great quantity of heat disappears in melting it, and when it falls to any depth it takes a long time for it to "go off," even if the weather is warm.

In the high Sierras even as late as June or July I have walked for hours on the snow banks, when it was so warm that I was constantly wiping the perspiration from my face and hands, and I have many times plucked flowers with one hand, near the nose of a drift, with the other hand on the snow.

Hail.

Hail is another form of water as a solid. Hailstones are small balls or pellets of almost solid ice. These are sometimes of considerable size, though, fortunately, this is not often the case.

I have, several times, seen them as large as robin's eggs. You can well understand that a fall of such hailstones, coming down with great velocity would be very destructive.

Usually with hail there is a strong wind, and it is not uncommon for windows to be broken, crops broken down, trees stripped of their leaves and even animals killed by severe hailstorms,

Hailstones are generally made up of layers, somewhat like the layers or scales of an onion. I will not take time now to talk with you about how these are formed, for it would make this paper too long. It is very curious, and perhaps your teacher will tell about it. you

Frost.

When the thermometer goes down to 32 degrees, or below, altho there may be no rain to be converted into snow or hail, we

In silence I'll take my way:

I will not go on like that blustering train,

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The wind and the snow, the bail and the rain,

Who make so much bustle and noise in vain,

But I'll be as busy as they."

Then he flew to the mountain and powdered its crest,

He lit on the trees, and their boughs he dressed

In diamond beads, and over the breast

Of the quivering lake he spread

A coat of mail, that it need not fear
The downward point of many a spear,
That he hung on the margin far and near,
Where a rock could rear its head.

He went to the windows of those who slept
And over each pane like a fairy crept;
Wherever he breathed, wherever he stepped,

By the light of the moon were seen
Most beautiful things; there were flowers and trees,
There were bevies of birds and swarms of bees,
There were cities and temples and towers, and these
All pictured in silvery sheen.

But he did one thing that was hardly fair;
He peeped in the cupboard, and finding there
That all had forgotten for him to prepare,
"Now just to set them a thinking,
I'll bite this basket of fruit," said he,
"This costly pitcher I'll burst in three,
And the glass of water they've left for me,

Shall 'tchick' to tell them I'm drinking."

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The Real Hero.

By CHAS. H. ALLEN.

Your navy may be iron-clad,

Its missiles weigh a ton,

These count but little when compared With

The man

behind

the gun.

The swiftest cruiser comes to grief And has to turn and run,

If he lacks the right material

In

The man

behind

the gun.

The Admiral in blue and gold, Resplendent as the sun,

If a true man, takes off his hat To

The man

behind

the gun.

In the hour of fiercest combat

No danger can he shun,

But standing steadfast at his post

Is

The man

behind

the gun.

If honors are to be bestowed

Count heroes, one by one,

Pray don't forget the grimy face Of

The man

behind

the gun.

And when sweet peace shall come

again

When victory has been won,

Let praises peai from every throat For

The man

behind

the gun.

"The only composition I knew anything about was that bot tle in the cupboard, and I wondered what he could want of that. At the close of school I went to him and asked if it was 'hot drops' he wanted. He laughed a little, coughed, as I now know, to keep from laughing more, and said 'Yes, the hotter the better."

"The cough particularly attracted my attention, and I thought-poor man, he wants it to cure his cough. So home I went, determined to bring a large bottle, larger than anyone else. I had an older brother and I thought he knew everything, so I told him about it, and asked him to get the bottle ready.

"We had a fine cut-glass decanter, on the top shelf. This he took down and putting into it a little from the hot drops, or composition bottle, filled it nearly half-full of water. Not satisfied, I filled it up, putting in a little more of the medicine, so it should be strong enough.

"When Monday morning came I hid this under my shawl and marched to school, priding myself not a little on the fact that probably my bottle was the largest one there would be.

"Soon he called one after another up to the table, for their compositions. To my great surprise they came forward and handed him a folded piece of paper. We had been obliged to bring in written excuses, and I supposed that these others were simply handing in an excuse, probably saying the family were out of 'composition.' I wondered at this, but was all the more glad that I had so good a supply.

"At last my name came, and

taking the decanter out from under my shawl, I marched up and proudly set it on his table. There was a moment's silence and then, as it dawned on him and the school what a simpleton I was, all burst into laughter. "Utterly bewildered, I knew not what to do, but finally rushed out of the school room, not stopping until I reached home, where in my mother's lap, with many tears, I told the whole story. It was many years before I heard the last of my 'composi tion.'"

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My First "Composition."

A few days ago while I was dining with an elderly lady, somewhat of an invalid, she related the following incident, and while I have no hope of giving it in the quaint and curious manner which was its chief charm, a manner that was in itself a guarantee that it was both truthful and unembelished, yet it may prove of some interest to those who have had, at one time or another, similar experiences.

We were discussing the old-fashioned medicine closet, speaking of the family remedies well known in all New England homes. The "Hot Drops," "Number Six" or "Composition" bottle was referred to, together with the fact that it was always in great demand about green-apple-time.

"Yes," said she, "I have reasons to remember this remedy very distinctly, because of an occurrence that took place in my early school life.

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