do we therefore undervalue the lesson taught by the premonitory blow. Nor do we, because we maintain Babylon means Babylon, thereby object to other countries or cities being regarded as Babylon, if the moral features and habits of Babylon be found attaching to them. Jerusalem may, spiritually, be called Sodom and Egypt, when the characteristic sins of Sodom and of Egypt are found in her. But this does not cause Sodom to be other than Sodom, nor Egypt to cease to be Egypt. Because we say that human evil will yet find a point of centralization in the land of Shinar and in Babylon, we do not on that account refuse to see the responsibilities of Babylon, wherever Babylon's lineaments are found. Application of Scripture is most legitimate when its primary sense has first been determined by careful and accurate interpretation. If interpretation, however, has not first definitely fixed the primary meaning, our applications must be not only vague and indefinite, but seeing that they are not guided by the great substantive facts of revelation, they must necessarily be fanciful and erroneous. Ascertained facts may lead us to principles, but principles can never antecedently determine facts.

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE GRADUAL

DECLENSION OF BABYLON.

BEFORE we proceed to consider further the evidence of Scripture, it may be desirable to give a brief abstract of the history of Babylon's fall. It will show how gradual that fall was; and that there is evidence of its having been inhabited by a few, even during the period of its lowest degradation.

About the year 541 B.C. it was taken by Cyrus, and Belshazzar was slain. The Scripture records Belshazzar's death only. Herodotus speaks of the capture, but makes no mention of any massacre. It is certain that under Cyrus, whose uncle Cyaxares (called in Scripture Darius the Mede) was made. governor, Babylon continued to flourish.

The first great blow it received was when it revolted from the Persians some years after. It was recaptured about the year B.C. 516, after a siege of twenty months, by Darius Hystaspes, who punished the inhabitants severely, destroyed about 3,000 of the principal citizens, and the outer walls.

Some years after, Xerxes went to Babylon and plundered the celebrated Temple of Belus, which

former conquerors had respected. The Babylonians were irritated, attempted a revolt-failed-and were punished by the utter destruction of their great temple, which Xerxes caused to be levelled.

Nevertheless, in the time of Alexander the Great, Babylon continued strong enough to have attempted resistance against him, if it had seen fit to do so. But, on the contrary, it opened its gates willingly to him and to his army. "When Alexander left Arbela," * says Arrian, "he hasted straight to Babylon, and when he came nigh to the city he drew up his whole army in order of battle; but the Babylonians having notice of his approach, threw open their gates, and in vast multitudes, with their priests and chief men, went out to meet him, offering him great gifts, besides delivering the city, the tower, and the royal treasure into his hands. Alexander, entering the city, commanded the Babylonians to rebuild the temples which Xerxes had destroyed, and especially the temple of Belus, whom the Babylonians worshipped as their chief god. He consulted the Chaldeans in this city about the restoration of the temples, and whatever they advised he performed; and in particular by their advice he offered sacrifice to Belus."

This extract most clearly shows that Babylon was a place of considerable importance during the whole period of the Persian dynasty. It was not, therefore, suddenly destroyed either by Cyrus or any

The battle of Arbela was B.C. 331.

of his successors.

On the contrary, it passed as one of the chief cities of the earth into the hands of Alexander.

Alexander's intention of restoring the temple of Belus, and making Babylon the "metropolis of an universal empire," was frustrated by his death; and after this, Babylon commenced more speedily to decline. It suffered much in the wars which ensued amongst his generals, previous to the final partition of his dominions into four kingdoms. Babylon fell to the share of Seleucus, who by the building of Seleucia in its neighbourhood, did more to effect its downfall than any of its previous conquerors. "None of Alexander's successors," says Strabo, ever cared any more for Babylon; and the remains of that city were entirely neglected. The Persians destroyed one part of it, and time and the indifference of the Macedonian princes completed its ruin, especially after Seleucus Nicator had built Seleucia in its neighbourhood. This prince and his successors manifested a decided preference to the latter place, and fixed there the capital of their empire. At the present time (Strabo lived in the time of Tiberius) Seleucia is actually a much more considerable city than Babylon, which is to a great degree deserted."

From this extract it appears, that so late as the time of Strabo, Babylon was only "to a great degree deserted."

In the reign of Caligula a persecution was kindled

D

against the Jews. Many of them fled for refuge to Babylon, where they were attacked and massacred: Babylon also suffered. Those who escaped the sword being unable to support the cruel exactions to which they were exposed in Babylon, migrated to Seleucia. Six years after, the plague visited Babylon. These were fresh causes operating to the further reduction of that city.

In the reigns of the immediately succeeding Emperors, Babylon is but slightly mentioned. About this time, however, probably in the year 64 of the Christian era, when Babylon was under its Parthian masters, St. Peter wrote his epistle there. Babylon at that time, says Bengel, abounded in Jews (scatebat Judæis).

Lucian of Samosata (a town not far from the Euphrates) who lived in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, speaks of Babylon as a city that would soon disappear as Nineveh had done. This mention, however, shows that it had not yet disappeared.

Some of the early Christian writers speak of Babylon. Jerome, for example, states that animals were kept there for hunting by the kings of Persia. Theodoret, who died A.D. 460, says that the city was no longer inhabited either by Assyrians or Chaldeans, but only by some Jews, whose houses were few and scattered abroad. Just after this period, however, it gave its name to the celebrated Babylonian Talmud, which in the year 500 of our