The form of anchor commonly used throughout the world from the beginning of the last century up to about 1875 was, in most essentials, that shown in Plate 66. It is true that doublefluked anchors resembling those now so familiar were proposed as early as 1850, but they were slow in making their way, and it was not until about the year above-named that they began to come into anything like general use. They are now almost universally. used by steamers, and the prejudice which long existed against them in the minds of seamen is rapidly dying out.

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When an old-fashioned anchor is let go in water fairly deep, it strikes the bottom crown first, and immediately falls over until it rests on the end of the stock, the arms lying horizontally. From this position any drag of the chain to one side capsizes or cants" it, pulling the stock down horizontally upon the bottom and pointing one of the flukes fair for biting. As the drag continues, the fluke is forced into the ground, and if the anchor is well designed, the heavier the pull the deeper the fluke goes down -provided sufficient length of chain is given to keep the pull approximately parallel to the bottom. For this reason, quite as much as because of the "catenary that comes from a long scope, it is important to use plenty of chain, particularly when the anchor is taking the first hold. In good holding ground, anchors frequently bury themselves completely. This tendency of the old-fashioned anchor to work into the ground under a pull is one of its most valuable characteristics, and one not possessed by any of the double-fluked types.

It is a common mistake to think of the holding power of an anchor as due entirely to the area of the palm. If this were the case, the merits of an anchor might be determined very simply. But the fact is that a large palm may be an actual disadvantage. No doubt the cross-sectional area of that part of the anchor

which is buried has much to do with the resistance, but so has the friction of the whole surface upon the soil by which it is surrounded and which tends to pack around it and press in upon it from all sides.

If, now, an anchor drags-and it usually does so slightly in the act of taking hold—an excessively large palm breaks up the ground through which it moves and carries the soil along, leaving a broad furrow behind through which the arms and crown move without resistance. A small and well designed palm, on the other hand, permits a flow of the soil, which closes in behind and keeps a constant friction on the other parts of the anchor. Another disadvantage of a large palm is in its tendency to become "shod" in a clayey soil. Such a soil sticks to all parts of the anchor, but especially to the palm; and if the anchor starts after having once held, it carries along with it a shapeless mass of mud which is for the time being a part of the anchor. This adds to its weight, but does away with all chance of its biting again, and there is nothing to do in such a case but to pick up the anchor and let go another.

In the double-fluked type the palms are always large, and this type trusts for holding to their area alone. Moreover, the arms are necessarily straight-or nearly so-and lack the tendency to work downward which is so important a feature of the older form.

The anchor shown in Plate 66, represents fairly well the most approved design of the old type. The palm is of medium size, the arms shaped to the angles most favorable for biting, and the cross-section of each part carefully designed for maximum strength in the direction of the strain to which it will be subjected. All edges are chamfered off to reduce the wearing of the chain as its bight rides over the anchor, and all re-entering angles are rounded as much as possible.

While double-fluked anchors are not necessarily stockless, most of those in use are so, and claim this feature as a merit. It certainly adds greatly to the convenience of handling and stowing, and this is the ground on which the patent anchor makes its strongest appeal for favor; but so far as holding is concerned, it is unquestionably a disadvantage. As a ship swings around her anchor, there are many times when the chain leads off to one side and upward with a pull upon the ring tending to roll the anchor over and so break out the fluke (or flukes). A similar

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tendency will exist in the case of a direct pull, if the flukes of a patent anchor encounter different degrees of resistance. A stock prevents rolling over under these conditions, whether with a patent anchor or an old-fashioned one, and many seamen insist that it is hardly less useful in this matter than in canting. One of the best known of the patent anchors (Martin's, Plate 68), has a short stock as a concession to this view, and nearly all double-fluked types may be had with stocks if desired.

Plate 68 shows several of the best known types of doublefluked anchors. The following features are common to them all. Ist. The arms are pivoted upon the shank and can swing from thirty to forty degrees on either side.

2nd. The palms are in the plane of the arms instead of at right angles to it.

3rd. It results from this construction that both flukes should bite if either one does.

4th. To insure that the flukes shall bite, the arms carry, at the crown, a projecting shoulder with a sharp edge, which takes on the bottom and throws the arms downward.

They are catted and fished, if at all, at a single operation, by a pendant (or purchase) hooked into a balancing link. In most cases, they are hoisted direct to the hawse-pipe and stowed there. TYZACK'S.-In place of a shoulder at the crown for throwing the arms downward, this anchor has a third fluke there which not only tilts the others but assists them in holding.

SMITH'S. This type has two tilting shoulders, one at the base of each arm, instead of a single one at the crown.

HALL'S has its tilting shoulder distinct from the arms and pivoted upon them, while they in turn pivot upon the stock.

DUNN'S (Plate 66).—This is an American type, and is much used in the United States Navy. The shank engages the arms by an enlarged head, so that its holding strength is independent of the pivoting pin. If this pin breaks, the anchor continues to hold as well as before.

BALDT'S (Plate 67). This type is also much used in the United States Navy. It resembles the Dunn, but differs from that type in the method of connecting the arms to the shank.

Patent anchors have unquestionably very great advantages in convenience of handling and stowage. If carried on the bow, they are catted and fished more simply than the old type and usu