from Kanaja, Japan; fine brown and green gravel from earthquake eruption, Nayaya, Japan; eleven specimens from different provinces of Canada; and drillings from the deep well at Wheeling, W. Va. The total averages of all the percentages found are 0.57 for air-dried, and 0.66 for ignited soils; or, omitting the estimation of the St. Helena specimen, which was exceptional, 0.515 and 0.588. These facts are regarded by the author as pointing very plainly to the universal distribution of titanic oxide over the earth's crust. It appears strange, he observes, that any body existing in so considerable an amount in the soil should have been overlooked in the numerous analyses of soils that have been made.

Prof. J. B. Farmer and Mr. W. G. Freeman have demonstrated the action of germinating peas, cress, and barley in causing the deoxidation of a watery solution of methylene blue to a colorless liquid on shaking up the latter with air, while on adding a drop of hydrogen peroxide the blue color was restored. Green plants placed in the solution acted in a manner precisely similar to the seedlings, though the action could be modified by assimilation in sufficient light.

Grains of maize were sterilized by Jules Laurent by being kept in a weak solution of bichloride of mercury for two hours, and were then cultivated in a solution containing nitrate of lime, chloride of potassium, sulphate of magnesia, mono-potassic phosphate, and a few drops of a dilute solution of perchloride of iron. The maize developed normally, even to the complete opening of the flowers. On adding to the solution a known weight of glucose, and again of inverted sugar, it was found that the quantity of sugar absorbed is in relation with the dry weight of the plant.

Contamination of water by zinc is not very frequent. An instance is cited by Percy A. E. Richards in the "Chemical News," in which water drawn from a Berkshire (England) district and after being stored in a reservoir, supplied to a private residence for drinking purposes by a galvanized-iron pipe about two miles long, developed, on being exposed to the air for about an hour, a distinct scum on the surface. On analysis this was found to contain 5.12 grains of zinc carbonate per gallon. The presence of the zine was easily detected in the unconcentrated water by both the ammonium sulphide and potassium-ferrocyanide tests. Upon boiling the water a precipitation of carbonate of zinc took place.

Of the chemical modifications that take place in fruits during their growth M. C. Gerber finds that the acids disappear, giving off at the same time more carbonic-acid gas than they can borrow from atmospheric oxygen and forming hydrates of carbon. The tannins disappear when the respiratory quotient is below unity, and do not form hydrates of carbon. So long as the tannins exist the fruits will not soften. As soon as they have disappeared, softening begins. Then follows obstruction of the intercellular meatus. alcoholic fermentation, and the formation of the perfumed ethers. At the same time the respiratory quotient becomes greater than

unity.

CHILI, a republic in South America. The national Congress consists of a Senate and a House of Deputies, each elected by the votes of the male citizens able to read and write, the Senators by the provinces and the Deputies by the departments, in the proportions of one Deputy to 30,000 of population, and one Senator to three Deputies. The President of the republic is elected for five years by a college of electors. Federico Errazuriz was elected President for the term ending Sept. 18, 1901. His Cabinet at the beginning of 1898 was composed as follows: Premier and Minister of the Interior, An

Antofagasta was ceded to Chili by Bolivia after the war with Peru and Bolivia, and Tarapacá by Peru, and Tacna also on condition that its inhabitants should decide by a majority vote at the end of ten years whether they should become citizens of Chili definitively, or whether the province should be retroceded to Peru on payment of an indemnity. When the term was past, Peru was unable to act, owing to political disturbances, and hence the question has remained undecided. Serious differences have existed between Chili and the Argentine Republic relative to the boundary line in Patagonia, and the arbitration of the British Queen has been invited.

The census of 1885 was notoriously imperfect, and that of 1895 probably understates the actual population by at least 15 per cent. The number of marriages in 1895 was 14,779: of births, 110,154; of deaths, 92,197; excess of births, 17,957. The immigrants do not average over 600 a year. In 1896 Congress appropriated 867,000 pesos for the encouragement of immigration.

Finances.-The total revenue in 1894 was 83,436,000 pesos, and the expenditure 78,482,000 pesos. For 1897 the revenue was estimated at 79,200,000 pesos, of which import duties were expected to produce 22,500,000 pesos, export duties on nitrates 38,600,000 pesos, export duties on iodine 250,000 pesos, railroads 14,000,000 pesos, posts and telegraphs 1,000,000 pesos, rentals and sales 1,900,000 pesos, stamps 550,000 pesos, and other sources 400,000 pesos. The expenditure for 1897 was set down as 79,155,971 pesos, of which 8,905,713 pesos were assigned to the interior, 2,442,396 pesos to foreign affairs, worship, and colonization, 9,348,000 pesos to justice and public instruction, 18,035,083 pesos to finance, 11,864.456 pesos to war, 8,546,983 pesos marine, and 20,013,340 pesos to industry and public works. For 1898 the revenue was estimated at 76,250.000 pesos, and expenditure at 76,205,164 pesos.

to

The foreign debt on June 30, 1897, amounted to

£17,629,270 sterling, and the internal debt to 30,169,042 pesos. The interest charge on the foreign debt is 12,675,733 pesos.

The Army and Navy.-The standing army, in accordance with the law of Dec. 31, 1896, consists of 9 regiments of infantry, 8 of cavalry, 5 of artillery, and a corps of engineers, with a total strength not to exceed 9,000 men. The roster contains 10 generals and 613 officers of other grades. The National Guard, formerly a volunteer force, has since 1896 been reorganized. Every Chilian from twenty to forty years of age is required to serve, and about 25,000 receive military instruction every year, the total strength being 432,000 men.

66

The Chilian fleet contains the first-class cruiser Esmeralda," of 7,020 tons, the powerful small battle ship "Capitan Prat," of 6,900 tons, the ironclad "Almirante Cochrane," of 3,500 tons, the old Huascar," the new armored cruiser "O'Higgins," of 8,500 tons, the fleet new "Blanco Encalada," of 4,400 tons, the second-class cruisers "Presidente Errazuriz" and "Presidente Pinto," of 2,080 tons, the recently launched "Ministro Zenteno,” of 3,600 tons, 11 gunboats of various sizes, 4 new Englishbuilt destroyers of more than 30 knots, and 15 firstclass and 4 second-class torpedo boats.

Commerce. The total value of imports in 1896 was 74,082,805 pesos, and of exports 74,359,414 pesos. In 1895 the imports were valued at 69,206,552 pesos, and the exports at 72,919,882 pesos. The values of the chief exports were 45,528,000 pesos for nitrate, 4,918,000 pesos for silver, 4,881,000 pesos for copper, 3,599,000 pesos for cereals, 1,561,000 pesos for coal, 1,443,000 pesos for iodine, 1,022,000 pesos for leather, and 948,000 pesos for gold.

Navigation.-There were 2,021 vessels in the foreign trade, of 2,732,000 tons, entered and 1,919, of 2,969,000 tons, cleared at Chilian ports in 1895. The tonnage entered coast wise was 6,232,000.

The commercial navy on Jan. 1, 1896, numbered 42 steamers, of 29,931 tons, and 146 sailing vessels, of 75,711 tons.

Communications.-There were 2,504 miles of railroad in operation in 1896, of which the Government owned 1,075 miles. The capital expenditure on the Government railroads and 600 miles that will become Government property at the end of their concessions was 77,540,011 pesos. On the completion of 46 miles over the Andes, Chili will be connected by an international railroad between Mendoza and Santa Rosa, 18 miles having already been built on the Argentine side and 18 on the Chilian side.

The Government telegraph lines, on Jan. 1, 1896, had a length of 6,965 miles, with 8,330 miles of wire. The number of dispatches in 1895 was 1,159,553. There were 2,613 miles of lines belonging to railroad and telegraph companies.

The post office in 1895 carried 56,465,924 internal letters and newspapers and 4,977,598 in the foreign service. The postal receipts were 1,749,021 pesos, and expenses 1,930,935 pesos.

Financial Crisis.-The state of armed peace maintained for two years on account of the Pata gonian boundary dispute was more trying to Chili than to the Argentine Republic, with its growing wealth and population. Hence the Chilians were anxious to have the conflict come soon if the question must be decided by arms. The decline of the nitrate industry and other causes of depression, in connection with the unsettled state of the currency, led to a financial crisis which grew more severe as the year advanced. A ministerial crisis occurred on March 22, when all the members of the Cabinet resigned. Several weeks were passed in negotiations before a new ministry was formed. It was constituted on April 15 as follows: Premier, Carlos

Walker Martinez; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Juan Latorre; Minister of Justice, Agusto Luco; Minister of Finance, Dario Zanartu; Minister of War, Patricio Alcalde; Minister of Industry and Public Works, Emilio Bello Codecido. In order to clear the way for developments in the Argentine dispute, the new Cabinet made haste to arrange the old difference with Peru in respect to the conquered provinces of Tacna and Arica, the inhabitants of which should have decided in 1894 by a plebiscite whether they would remain under Chilian administration or return to Peruvian allegiance. A protocol was signed in the beginning of May for the execution of the treaty of Ancon, any differences arising as to the conditions of voting to be settled by the arbitration of the Spanish Government. In the beginning of July a monetary panic resulted from the continued withdrawal and exportation of gold in large amounts. The Government, on July 7, closed all the banks until July 12, and meanwhile discussed the advisability of issuing a paper currency. A moratorium of thirty days was next declared. Congress empowered the President to issue $50,000,000 of paper money, partially guaranteed on the import duties, to borrow £4,000,000 sterling for the purpose of redeeming the notes after three and a half years, and to lend $20,000,000 at 4 per cent. to the banks on good security. This law soon made gold go up to a premium of 46 per cent, and over, and caused merchants to countermand their orders for goods from Europe. The Government parted with its hoard of gold. Its military expenditure had exhausted its resources and the balance of the conversion fund. The periodical advances from the state to the Bank of Chili, which never had been in a position to meet its liabilities since the establishment of conversion in June, 1895, had also contributed to the financial straits of the Government. The failure of conversion and the return to a depreciated paper currency caused such indignation in financial circles that the Minister of Finance resigned, and Rafael Sotomayor was appointed in his place. Although the income for 1899 was estimated at $83,000,000, and the expenditure at only $76,000,000, the Minister of Finance asked Congress to reestablish the inheritance and donation duties, and to impose taxes on foreign insurance companies, tobacco, matches, and alcohol. The Chilian and Argentinian boundary commissioners met at Santiago in August. Barros Arrana, who had charge of the Chilian interest, took offense because President Errazuriz and Admiral Latorre insisted upon taking part in the conferences, and on Aug. 19 he resigned. His place was taken by Alberto Gonzales Errazuriz.

CHINA, an empire in eastern Asia. The Government, as defined in the collected regulations of the Tsing dynasty, is based on the Government of the family, and the Emperor exercises supreme paternal authority. The acts of the Government are largely regulated by precedents extending back thousands of years. The imperial administration is directed by a Cabinet composed of 2 Chinese and 2 Manchu members, advised by 2 delegates of the Hanlin College, who watch against any contravention of the dynastic regulations or Confucian precepts. The highest governing body is the Grand Council, which issues laws and regulations for the empire. Subordinate to the Cabinet are the boards of administration, presided over each by a Chinese and a Manchu. One board supervises the conduct and administration of the officials, another directs the finances, the third enforces the laws relating to the duties and ceremonies of the people, the fourth has charge of military matters, the fifth of public works, the sixth is the high court of criminal jurisdiction, and the seventh directs naval affairs. The Board of Censors, presided over by a Chinese and a

Manchu, watches over all the other bodies and reports to the Emperor shortcomings and delinquencies occurring in any branch of the public service. The Tsung-li-Yamen, or Foreign Office, is a modern body, which since 1861 has conducted all affairs with the Western nations and with the institutions [ directed by foreigners, such as the maritime customs and the Pekin University. The present Emperor reigns under the name of Kwangsu, signifying "continuation of glory." He is the son of Prince Chun, the seventh son of the Emperor Taokwang, and was born on Aug. 2, 1872, succeeded his cousin Tsaichun on Jan. 12, 1875, under the regency of his aunt, the dowager Empress Tsu-Hsi, born Nov. 17, 1834, and assumed the Government on March 4, 1889. Area and Population.The area of the 18 provinces of China proper is 1,336,841 square miles, with a population estimated at 386,000,000. The Chinese Empire, including besides these Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, Jungaria, and Eastern Turkestan, has a total area of 4,218,400 square miles, with 402,680,000 inhabitants.

The number of foreigners residing in the treaty ports on Jan. 1, 1897, was 10,855, of whom 4,362 were British subjects, 1,439 Americans, 933 French, 871 Portuguese, 870 Germans, 852 Japanese,

contracted in 1887, another silver loan of £1,635,000 raised in 1894, a gold loan of £3,000,000 obtained in 1895, various other loans of that year amounting to £2,000,000, the Anglo-German loan of 1896 amounting to £16,000,000, bearing 6 per cent. interest, and

410 Spaniards, 407 Swedes and Norwegians, and 1,011 of other nationalities.

Finances. The revenue and expenditure of the Pekin Government were previous to the Japanese war estimated at about 89,000,000 taels a year. The expenses of the imperial province, including the cost of the Manchu garrisons and of the imperial household, were 19,478,000 taels, the cost of the northern naval squadron 5,000,000 taels, contributions for the southern squadrons were 5,000,000 taels, the annual expenditure on forts and guns for coast defense 8,000,000 taels, the cost of garrisoning Manchuria was 1,848,000 taels, that of the defense of Kansu and the Central Asian districts 4,800,000 taels, contributions to the provinces of Yunnan and Kweichow were 1,655,000 taels, interest and repayments of foreign loans 2.500,000 taels, railroad construction cost 500,000 taels, the cost of river embankments and other public works was 1,500,000 taels, the expense of the customs administration, including lighthouses and revenue cruisers, was 2,478,000 taels, and 36,220,000 taels were distributed among the 18 provinces for administrative expenses and the maintenance of the troops.

The receipts of the board of maritime customs for 1896 were 7,669,640 taels from imports, 8,455,528 taels from exports, 1,306,346 taels from the coasting trade, 611,026 taels of tonnage dues, 617,067 of commuted likin taxes, and 3,919,759 taels of opium likin; total. 22,579,366 taels.

The public debt at the beginning of 1897 consisted of a loan of £627,675 obtained in 1874, a loan of £1,604,276 raised in 1878, a silver loan for £1,505,000 raised in 1886, a German loan of £250,000

about £5,000,000 of internal loans contracted in 1895; total, £49,691,951 sterling.

Communications.-The railroad from Tientsin to Pekin, 73 miles, was opened on June 30, 1897, One 12 miles long has been built to connect Shanghai with Wusung. The railroad that brings coal down from the Kaiping mines to the Petang river has been continued through Taku to Tientsin and Linsi and is being carried through to Shanhaikwan.

Pekin has telegraphic communication with Europe by a connection with the Russian overland line in the Amur valley, as well as by the cables. The imperial system of telegraphs consists of lines joining the capital with Tientsin and the chief towns of Manchuria up to the Russian frontier, with Niuchwang, Chifoo, Shanghai, Yangchau, Suchau, all the ports on the Yangtse-Kiang, Canton, Wuchau, Lungchau, and the other principal cities of the empire, and, by the line running from Canton inland to the capital of Yunnan, with the Indian telegraph system, with which a connection is made at Manwyne, on the frontier of Burmah. From Shanghai a line runs to Amoy, Fuchau, Kashing, and Ningpo. Fuchau is also connected with Canton. From Taku a line runs through Port Arthur to the Korean capital.

Commerce. The total value of imports in 1896 was 202,589,994 taels, and of exports 131,081,421 taels. The imports of cotton cloth were valued at 47,233,000 taels; cotton yarns, 32,010,000 taels; opium, 28.652.000 taels; rice, 15,022,000 taels; kerosene, 9,083,000 taels; sugar, 7,002,000 taels; woolen cloth, 5,080,000 taels; sea products, 4,988,428 taels; iron, 3,680,000 taels; coal, 3,540,000 taels; fish, 3,