יי! his stump "the But periodicals of the hour! One stanza will be enough to quote. The maids of honor are represented as surveying the accident in the third stanza : "The Vestal maids of honor, For partner's heel, This soon might be retrieved. The Princess lost her shoe; Not knowing what to do!" The general character of history-of what we conceive to be history, at leastrobs the world of all those minute touches Biography is history; so is all that concerns manners, customs; in fact, a union of the picture which any given period of time presents, in all relating to social man. history in general does not answer to this character. The histories, for example, of the reign of George III. give us only the politics of the period, when they ought to represent age and body of the time, so that it may come before us as it really appeared in all its striking and peculiar relations. A dry detail of political events, for a given period, does not convey any idea of social existence, of the fashions, the arts, the fluctuating usages of the same term. We therefore contend, that the scope of history should be enlarged. Hence it is that we have no conception of the changes which have happened within a few years, or what out-of-which are the life of the picture. We have the-way sort of beings a part of existing society was half a century ago; how different were dress and equipage, how strong was superstition, how binding were religious and political bigotry, how much behind was society then in works of utility and comfort compared to ourselves. About the time that the French Revolution occurred there was a deplorable want of taste, a vapid, lifeless childishness of intellect, prevalent in the highest circles; and they were then considered, as a body, the best instructed. Until that gigantic convulsion, that political earthquake called the energies of Europe into existence, it is difficult to conceive the inanity of the best society and the unlearned content of the common mass. We will not boast of our more brilliant age beyond its deserts. We may, after all, have been lifted over the uprisen wave of time and be sinking on the leeward side of the majestic billow, but we are wonderfully elevated still above the dulness of that day. Let us take a few incidents from polished life at the epoch to which we allude; let us go to the court for our example. We recently conversed with an individual who was present at a brilliant party given by Queen Charlotte. The Princess Royal entangled her shoe in her dress while dancing at a birthnight ball. The incident became the subject of poetry -poetry so contemptible, that a schoolboy would now be ashamed of such vile doggerel, yet it was repeated by all the fashionables, set to music, and printed in the best seen Earl Grey, aristocratic in bearing, retiring and dignified in manners, looked up to in the House of Lords as a peer, and by the country as an able man and minister; yet it is within human memory that Mr. Grey, the same Earl Grey, and Mr. Windham, in the midst of the offscourings of society, attended those brutal exhibitions, boxing-matches, in the vicinity of London. Windham commended bull-fights and boxing-matches; so did many of the judges at a much later period, because without such exhibitions the courage of the people, forsooth, would die away; knives would be used in quarrels, and the French would beat us! Just so it is to reason upon any ground but right or wrong, justice or injustice. The basis of argument used by statesmen-policy, always exhibits its nakedness, in the end reacting upon the party using it much to his disadvantage. During the time this argument for supporting the popular courage was in vogue, our troops were continually beaten by the enemy; in one case the commander-in-chief swimming the half-frozen ditches in Holland to escape. The better taste of the time put down these barbarities. We have yet to learn that at Barrosa, Salamanca, Vittoria, or Waterloo, or even later, under the burning sun of India, British soldiers have quailed for lack of bull-fights and boxing matches at home. They have, instead, been victors since these barbarities were scouted by every well-educated individual, as they were too frequently van quished while such disgraceful exhibitions | nation of men of education to punishwere in their vigor. Another trait of those ments to which, in their distaste for the times was the ferocity of public executions, freedom of the press, they condemned only nineteen hung at one session, twenty at the refuse of society, recoiled upon themanother-all suspended together, some for selves. The people pelted, often nearly the value of a few shillings. Until the killed, the parties who had, with the vox reign of George III., juries had been re- populi, vox Dei, committed a crime; but duced by the management of the lawyers they cheered and encouraged the victim of and judges to little more than a formali- overbearing justice, and too frequently ty-all that the Crown wished to condemn pelted the unoffending officers whose duty were condemned. By degrees, juries were it was to exercise the commands of their again restored to their original purpose. But superiors. What a picture does the pillorythe barbarities of judicial proceedings still ing of De Foe give of his advance in remained; women were burned almost alive knowledge and of his high merits, comfor coining, down to a late period. They pared to those of his judges! and still were only tied half-throttled to a stake, more of a whole House of Commons---of fagots were piled round them and imme- the collective wisdom of the nation, that diately set on fire: this was for coining. house of which De Foe, with admirable History touches upon none of those traits skill, was the advocate all the while. In of very late times; without such petty our days all this system is exploded. The facts we can gain no knowledge of the state judges are high-minded men! disenthralled of society. The liberty of the press, for from court influence, and respected by the example (except when the popular mind people. Juries do their duty uninfluenced was roused and the attention fixed on the by power. Are not these changes worthy question at issue, as in Woodfall's case, of especial notice in history, beyond a mere about jurors), was little more than nominal passing sentence, that such and such things down to a very late date. Many can re- were better in the reign of William IV. or member the time-for the heinousness of a Victoria than of William III. and Queen libel in those days consisted in the view of Anne? Shall we have no credit for them? the court in its being or not on the minis- This is a cold notice of such great changes, terial side--many can remember when old of such an advance in everything beneficial as Mr. Walter, the grandfather of the present we see around us. Is not history then bound proprietor of The Times, was most cruelly to supply some illustrations of such advantreated for alleged libels---one was for stat- ces, some contrasts with the past in juxtaing that the Prince of Wales and Duke of position? Otherwise we have only, as in York had incurred his majesty's disappro- the present mode of writing history, an bation for their conduct in some trivial mat- author's unsupported assertion. We repeat ter; he was fined 1001., and had one year's it, history must be improved by self-demonimprisonment in addition to a sentence he stration, to do our own day common justice. was undergoing. He was fined 100l. be- Look back to the time of Mr. Pitt, under sides for stating that it was understood the head of finance alone. If in society a the Duke of Clarence had returned home man should say Pitt knew nothing of finance from his station without leave. At this nor its principles, he would run the hazard very time, for some remarks upon the dis- of a flat contradiction. Yet Pitt knew no solute conduct of one of the princes, he more of the matter than his times perwas undergoing imprisonment for a year in mitted, he was in no case in advance of his Newgate, fined 501., sentenced to stand in time; but of finance he really did know the pillory once at Charing Cross, and to nothing. It was a science in his day only find security for good behavior for seven developed among a few philosophers, whose years: all this, be it observed, for no real works were of that order that are only seen injury to any one, and in utter disregard of in far perspective, by the mind of genius, the truth or falsehood of the charges. The and were consequently looked upon in those punishment of the pillory was used down days by statesmen like a distant star that to a late period. The judges hated the the untutored will not credit to be a world. freedom of the press, because in its dis- Peel is a financier as much before Pitt, as creet use it could still keep beyond their Herschel in astronomy was before Francis love of power and court-made law, and yet Moore, the astrologer. Is it not a worthy expose wrong and oppression in any quar- thing for history to record the progress of ter. It was seen at last, that the condem- science that has made this difference be means, of national wealth, while his whole system of taxation-during peace, too— tended to do it injury. We need not contrast the system of the present time, but we argue that history ought to exhibit both, in order that we may estimate our loss and gain. We must, therefore, amend history; suffer it to lie no longer under the implication of falsehood, or at least of that which constitutes the vice of a falsehood-the mis tween the times of Pitt and Peel? History, as now written, will only note a few great results. Unless it is known how the revenue is raised, we cannot mark improvement in the mode on which the merit of the change hinges. Pitt, for instance, wanted to raise 900,000l. in taxes. First, he laid a duty of 28. on hats of mixed materials, and 6d. on those of felt Then on ribands and gauzes a penny per dozen yards; 3s. per chaldron on inland coals; 10s. on sad-application of it to some unworthy purpose dle-horses; 10 per cent. on stained linens through the partiality or carelessness of the and calicoes; 1-2d. per lb. on candles; historian. We might pursue the subject licenses from 501. downwards to dealers in much further, but have not time. Let us excisable commodities; 2s. 6d. a thousand have facts, particular not general, as of old, on bricks and tiles; a third additional duty that we may measure progress. Let us on paper; postage doubled; 5s. per week have no false deductions, no idle palliamore on hackney-coaches. Could anything tions. Above all, give us truth; that same be more discouraging than introducing the truth, the "naked and open daylight," excise into every dealer's home? He car- says Bacon, "that doth not show the ried on duties continually; taxed lead, masks, and mummeries, and triumphs of plate, and ale-dealers, servant-girls, shops, the world half so stately and daintily as watches, &c. These producing compara- candlelights," but which, for the use of tively small sums and costing great trouble, history, is our best guide: we repeat it, annoyance, and expense in collecting, he history must be new modelled; let some argued for encouraging commerce as a one undertake it in a more worthy mode. From the North British Review. ITALY IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 4 vols., 8vo. 1. Storia delle Compagnie di Ventura in Italia; di ERCOLE RICOTTI. The History of the Bands of Free Adventurers in Italy. By HERCULES RICOTTI. Turin, 1844-1846. The 2. Biografie dei Capitani Venturieri dell' Umbria; da ARIODANTE FABRETTI. Lives of the Captains of the Free Companies in Central Italy. By ARIODANTE FABRETTI. Post Svo., 3 vols. Montepulciano, 1842-1846. (Not complete.) HERE are two contemporaneous works de- obstacles which render her progress appa voted to the illustration of the same portion rently almost hopeless-Italy is progressing. of Italy's mediæval history-welcome both, Railways and steamboats have, with their and welcome all! For may it not be beneficent and irresistible ties, bound her to deemed an indication that, where the har- the more civilized portions of Europe, and vest is so very large, the workmen must be she cannot choose but be dragged forward in far from few, when two are found disputing their wake. The signs and evidences of this the tillage of the same spot in the common progress, though still far less striking, perharvest-field? We hail the omen. Not haps, to an English or French observer than that it is the first fact that has directed our the more obvious tokens of her past lethargy attention to the change that the last few and present comparative barbarism, are yet years have produced in this respect in Italy. many and unmistakable enough to those who Nor is this the first occasion on which we know her well. One of these is the daily have called the attention of our readers to increasing movement, life, and vital energy the circumstance. The truth is, that despite of her literature. It is true that the observer all that might be said of her still lamenta- who should turn to the yearly volume of the ble condition-despite the many and various" Bibliografia Italiana," published by Stella of Milan, with a view to estimate from its other, which beset the literature of Young list of every book printed in Italy the condi- Italy, while the subject of them furnishes a tion of Italian literature, would be forcibly good specimen of the leading tendency of struck with the extraordinary proportion of Italian mind at the present day, and will translations from the English, French, and at the same time afford our readers some German, to the entire mass. It is so re- glimpses of a very interesting and amusing markable as to constitute a confession of page of mediaval history. native poverty most humiliating to every It is the story of Italian warfare and adworthy citizen of the various States of the venture in that miraculous fifteenth centuPeninsula. But it is something that transla-ry-those strange, pregnant, fateful, manytions are called for. Where there are read-colored times;-almost as strange, pregers there will not long be wanting writers to nant, fateful, and many-colored as those of supply their wants. "Sint Mecanates non this our nineteenth century! But what a deerunt Marones." And the abundance of mad topsy-turvy world it was in those translations published in Italy is an evidence days! Not a merry world or good old that a reading public-the only Mecanas times, as the cant goes-not at all. Very that can call a healthy literature into exist- much otherwise. Most sick and sorry. ence is beginning to grow up there. This times-an exceedingly disagreeable and is something. But it is more that the works very uncomfortable world was it in the fifselected for translation are, for the most part, teenth century. Picturesque? Aye, trusuch as to do credit to the demand of Italian ly, lady; and very pleasant-to read of, readers. Moreover, the proportion of trans- as stretched on a chaise longue in a comlations to original works is gradually decreas- fortable drawing room-you, the mistress ing. And despite the many grievous obsta-perhaps of a little suburban residence, encles opposed to the activity of Italian intel-joy a security, elegance, and comfort lect, there is enough to show that in every which might well excite the envy of the ncdepartment of human knowledge thought is ble chatelaines of those "good old times." at least awake. Good-for-nothing times? Nay, not so ei It is true that those who have formed their ther, fair reader. These poor old days with estimate of Italian literature from an ac- their unrighted wrongs, their struggling, quaintance with it during its latest previous their working, their striving, and their sufperiod of activity, may well object that the fering, were good for much. Very good abundance of publication has been, in Italy for the supply of brilliant materials for the at least, no evidence of awakened intellect. motley kaleidoscope history-pictures of The remembrance of the lamentable mob of " graphic" historical romance writers. dilettanti sonneteers, academic inditers of Good, also, it may be, for other purposes; epithalamic canzonets, spruce drawing-room and among them, for preparing the advent poet-priestlings, and word-catching polemi-and the glory and the well-being of our highcal commentators, may well excuse those who ly-improved nineteenth century selves. Let have looked into the Italian literature of us not then judge too severely that poor some sixty years since, for regarding the fer- old dead century, though its story do lead tility of the Italian press as no proof of its us to scout, with infinite self-gratulation, the worth. But the very fact that such things" good old times" theory. Let us rememwere, joined to the consideration of the very ber our obligations to it, and bear in mind different aspect of literature in the Penin- that we owe a similar duty to that five-andsula at present, is a ground of satisfaction. twentieth century, in whose eyes we shall, The change which has been silently operated it is to be hoped, seem as deserving of blame in the popular mind since that day must be and pity. immense. Effete senility has died, and In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuvigorous youth has grown up in its stead-ries Italy was covered thickly with a vast youth, active, hopeful, aspiring, growing, as number of communities-Communi. Some youth should be; but at the same time imi- were fair cities, some thriving towns, some tative, frequently jejune, occasionally pre-ambitious townlets. But all were CoмMUsumptuous, and not seldom mistaken, as NI. And it is easy to conceive all the youth must ever be. The two works whose titles the reader has seen at the head of this article, will furnish us with an opportunity of pointing out one or two faults of an opposite nature to each value, force, and sweetness of the term in the ears of those who had just succeeded in withdrawing their necks from the yoke of their feudal tyrants. Healthy, vigorous, active, boisterous, high-spirited, noisy, un ruly, but withal promising youngsters were | homes-to the high places of their native these youthful communities. Though grow-cities, and to turn out the opposite party. ing too big and too strong for the power But the mode and object of the warfare beof their domestic oppressors, they were tween one city and another was remarkable not altogether their own masters. They enough. To inflict injury on the enemy, were placed under the tutelage, for the and not to enrich or aggrandize themselves, most part, of two pedagogues-the Empe- was almost always the sole object. And ror and the Pope; and two worse protec- the injury which they aimed at doing seems tors or educators could not be found. At always to have stopped short of destruction, one moment abdicating their authority al- or complete conquest. To triumph over, together in the next suddenly resuming it to exult over, and insult the rival city-to with violence, passion, and tyranny; now humble its power and lower its pride-this quarrelling with each other-now again seems to have been the end and aim of these encouraging the quarrels of their pupils; perpetual wars. Indeed, had it been otherthey contrived to inflict on them all the wise-had the vanquished been finally and apparently incompatible evils of improper completely conquered and brought under interference and neglect. The result, as the power of the conqueror, the state of may easily be supposed, was not favorable things which we have attempted to describe to their character or well-being in any way. could not have lasted as it did. But no war Among other consequences of their posi- ever so disabled the vanquished party as to tion and circumstances, were perpetual prevent their being perfectly ready to begin never-ending quarrels among themselves. the contest again the next spring. The idea They were absolutely never at peace. War- of so conquering a city as to take possession fare became their chronic, and had got to of it, and permanently add it to the domibe considered their normal state. Each nions of the conqueror, was the product of a statelet bitterly hated its neighbors, and later period. thought that patriotism consisted in doing so. Each had also, to complicate its quarrels and render an interval of peace absolutely impossible, its internal discords-its two parties alternately conquering and conquered, alternately banished and banisher; that on the contrary they grew and -for these internal feuds were carried on flourished. But it is not the only instance by the Italian cities much on the principle "where grew the arts of war and peace" of the school-boy's game called " prison- side by side. And the extent to which such er's base." It is a continual ousting of the a phenomenon is possible, is a most striking party in by the party out. And this oust-proof of the invincible elasticity and enering, it must be remembered, was a literal gy of a free people. The most disorderly and corporeal ousting from house and home, movement, the most undisciplined confugoods and chattels, kith and kindred. The unsuccessful party, the "fuoruscite," who bear so large a part in the medieval history of Italy, were turned adrift upon the world utterly destitute, and without other hope than that of being able by force of arms, and probably with the assistance of some neighboring hostile city, to re-enter their country, i. e. their city, and inflict a similar lot upon their opponents. Thus there were constantly spread over the face of the country a vast number of reckless, desperate men, living how they could, and ready at any moment for any desperate venture, and dreading nothing but that general peace and tranquillity which would have rendered their lot absolutely hopeless beggary. The main and ultimate object of those "fuoruscite" was always of course to obtain their own return to their And it is strange, at first sight, that amid such a state of things, amid such frequent destruction of the fruits of human labor, and such universal insecurity of life and property, the arts of peace did not perish sion, may retard the progress of civilization, but will not paralyse it. It is the absence of all movement, the stagnation of despotism which can alone prevail to produce such a lethargy of mind as shall wholly contravene the great universal law of progress. Absence of movement alone indicates absence of life. And decay follows moral as well as physical death. So civilization gradually advanced among these turbulent and warlike communes, and brought wealth and luxury in its train. Such was the state of things in Italy during the thirteenth century. The commencement of the fourteenth saw an important and pernicious change. The imperial arms, which ever from time to time crossed the Alps and descended into Italy like the periodical overflow of some disastrous torrent, had brought into the peninsula a |