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The act, also, though it requires that the author shall supply a copy for the office of the secretary of state, excuses him from the trouble of depositing it there, requiring him only to leave it in the office of the clerk of the district court. (See Copyright.) LITERATURE, according to the English dictionaries, means learning. In general use, however, this word, in English, commonly signffies what in other countries would be called elegant literature, excluding works of abstract science and mere erudition. The meaning of the word, in English, however, is vague. In German and French, the word means, distinctly, the whole which has been written. Hence the phrase "literature of the middle age," or "medical literature," means the aggregate of works written during the middle ages, or on medicine, &c. Literary is applied to all those branches of reading which come within the scope of a general reader; the phrase "literary gentleman" corresponds pretty nearly to the French homme de lettres. Literary gazette is a journal which treats of works interesting to a general reader. In literary history, the word has a more extensive meaning. (See Literary History.)

LITHIA; the name applied by Arfwedson to an alkali discovered by him in analyzing the petalite. The name was derived from the Greek Aicios (stony), in allusion to the existence of the earth in a stony mineral. Lithia has since been detected in spodumene, and several kinds of mica. The best process for procuring it is the following: One part of petalite or spodumene, in fine powder, is mixed intimately with two parts of fluor-spar, and the mixture is heated with three or four times its weight of sulphuric acid, as long as any acid vapors are disengaged. The silica of the mineral is attacked by hydrofluoric acid, and dissipated in the form of fluosilicic acid gas, while the alumina and lithia unite with sulphuric acid. After dissolving these salts in water, the solution is boiled with pure ammonia to precipitate the alumina; is filtered, evaporated to dryness, and then heated to redness to expel the sulphate of ammonia. The residue is pure sulphate of lithia, which is dissolved in water and decomposed by acetate of barytes; and the acetate of lithia, being heated to redness, is converted into the carbonate of lithia, and, finally, this is decomposed by lime or barytes, which affords pure lithia. Its color is white; it is not deliquescent, but absorbs carbonic acid from the air; very soluble in water; acrid, caustic, and acts on colors

like the other alkalies: heated with platina, it acts on the metal. It combines with the different acids, and forms salts with them, like potash and soda, though possessed of a higher neutralizing power than these alkalies. Its phosphate and carbonate are sparingly soluble; its chloride is deliquescent and soluble in alcohol, and this solution burns with a red flame. All its salts give a red color, when heated on a platinum wire before the blow-pipe. The muriate and nitrate are deliquescent. The metallic base of lithia was evolved by sir H. Davy, by galvanism; but it was too rapidly oxidized to be collected: the metal was, however, seen to be white like sodium, and burned with bright scintillations.

LITHIC ACID, in combination with potash, is obtained from human urinary calculi, by digesting them in caustic lixivium: the lithate of potash gives up the lithic acid, on being mingled with acetic acid. It has the form of white shining plates, which are denser than water; is without taste or smell, and dissolves in 1400 parts of boiling water.

It reddens the infusion of litmus. The lithates are all tasteless, and very sparingly soluble in water. Lithic acid, by repeated distillations, is resolved into ammonia, nitrogen and prus

sic acid.

LITHOCHROMICS; the art of painting in oil upon stone, and of taking impressions on canvass. This process, which is designed to multiply the master-pieces of painting, was invented some years ago by Malapeau, in Paris, who received a patent for his invention, and has an establishment for lithochromic productions, which have been popular in Paris since 1823. This process is a substitute for the copying of portraits; it also serves as a cheap means of ornamenting walls. This art, however, is still in its infancy. The lithochromic paintings yet produced are less valuable than the poorest copies. A similar but much superior invention has been made by Sennefelder, which he calls mosaic impression.

LITHOGRAPHY (from Aios, stone, and ypadav, to write); the art invented by Aloys Sennefelder (q. v.), of taking impressions from drawings or writings on stone, without engraving. As the history of the invention of this art, and the principles on which it depends, are contained in the article Sennefelder, we shall confine ourselves, in this place, to an account of the process of lithographic printing, and of the materials used in it. Two substances are used for drawing upon stone-lithographic

chalk and lithographic ink. The former is made of 14 ounce of soap, 2 ounces of tallow, 1 ounce of pure white wax, 1 ounce shell-lac, ounce lamp-black. Another receipt gives 2 ounces soap, 5 ounces wax, ounce tallow, and 1 ounce lamp-black. The soap, after it has been scraped fine, is put in an iron or earthen vessel, over the fire, and, when it is melted, little pieces of wax and tallow are added; it must be stirred the whole time, and, when the heat is extreme, the contents of the vessel are to be lighted by a burning taper, the stirring being continued. After a short time, the flame is to be extinguish ed; and, while the mixture is boiling, the lamp-black is to be gradually added. When this is done, the mixture is taken from the fire, and poured out on an iron or stone plate, and may be made into any form desired. For lithographic ink, a great many different receipts have been given; one of the most approved of which is a composition made of equal parts of tallow, wax, shell-lac and common soap, with about one twentieth part of the whole of lamp-black. These materials are mixed in an iron vessel; the wax and tallow are first put in, and heated till they take fire, after which the other ingredients are successively added; the burning is allowed to continue until the composition is reduced about one third. All calcareous stones, being susceptible of taking in a greasy substance, and of imbibing water with facility, are suitable for lithographic printing, provided they are compact, capable of receiving a fine polish, and of a clear and uniform color; the more compact and uniform in color, the better. Those commonly used are a nearly pure carbonate of lime. Suitable stones are by no means scarce. The quarry from which the first lithographic stones were extracted, is still that which furnishes them in the greatest abundance, and of the largest dimensions. It is situated at Solenhofen, near Pappenheim, in Bavaria. No quarries hitherto known in France, afford stones equal to the German. Those found near Chateauroux are of a similar color to those of Solenhofen, and even harder, and of a finer grain; but they are full of spots of a softer nature, so that it is difficult to procure pieces of the necessary size. In England, a stone has been used which is found at Corston, near Bath. It is one of the white lias beds, but is inferior to the German in fineness of grain and closeness of texture. When proper stones cannot be obtained without difficulty or great ex

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pense, it is more advantageous to fabricate artificial slabs, to which a proper density and hardness may be given. An intelligent potter can easily imitate the density of natural stones. Slabs, used for this purpose, have been made of stucco, composed of lime and sand, and fastened with the caseous part of milk. Artificial slabs, however, have not been made so as to equal the real ones; and the royal institute of France have thought the subject of sufficient importance to offer a large prize for the best. The stones are polished by putting fine sand between two of them, and thus rubbing them against each other till the surface is smooth; then each separate stone is rubbed with water and pumice-stone. After the stone is thus prepared, it may be used for all kinds of writing and drawing, with the brush or pen, &c. But if it is to be prepared for chalk, it must have a rougher surface, and, after the application of the pumice-stone, it is to be covered with very fine sand, of a uniform size, and rubbed with another polished stone without water. This is turned round and round, till the necessary roughness is produced. Both kinds of plates must be carefully preserved against greasiness, such as they would receive from the touch of the hand, since all the greasy spots appear in the impression, the greasy printing ink remaining on them. If the drawing is to be prepared with ink, the stone is first covered with oil of turpentine or soap-water, to prevent the lines from spreading. Then the drawing may be made on the stone with a black lead pencil or with a red crayon; but the latter is preferable, because, when the ink comes to be applied, it is easier to discover how far the lines of the drawing are really covered with ink. After having dissolved the ink in rain or river water (the former ought to have stood some time), these pencil outlines are covered with ink. If the stroke is black, or, at least, dark brown, it may be inferred that the impression will succeed. But if light brown, and transparent, it will not give the impression. The ink may be laid on with the pen or brush. however, are not well suited for this purpose, particularly if the strokes are to be very fine; the pens are too quickly blunted; but steel pens are used to great advantage: these are made of watch springs. After the drawing, the plate is left several hours, and then put under the press. For drawing with chalk, it is necessary to apply the finest and softest tints first, and the strongest afterwards. If the proper effect cannot be

Goose quills,

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given to the foreground by chalk only, a little ink is added with the brush or pen. If the drawing has very fine tints, it is necessary that the impression from the plate should be taken immediately, other wise the oil will dry or evaporate, and the ink will not take effect on these parts. The oil varnish used must be of the best kind. Before the stone is covered with ink, it must first be dipped in nitric or sulphuric acid, diluted with water to such a degree, that only a slight effervescence is produced; the proportion of acid should be but little more than one per cent.; this will make the stone in the parts not covered by the drawing more readily imbibe the water. This process is called etching the drawing. After this, it is merely dipped in common water. Great care must be taken that the acid is not too strong, as it will then injure the fine strokes and tints. When the stone has imbibed sufficient water, a liquid mixture must be poured over it, consisting of one sixth linseed oil, two sixths oil of turpentine, and three sixths of pure water: this again must be wiped off clean, and the stone must be then covered with a solution of gumarabic in water; this prevents the lines from spreading. Immediately after this process, it is inked. The printing-ink is applied by means of leather printers' balls, stuffed with hair, or by cylinders, which must be of various sizes. The first impressions are seldom perfect. After each impression, the stone is washed with water, and, from time to time, is sponged over with gum-water, which is prepared from one ounce of finely pounded gum-arabic, and half a pound of water. The ink which has settled on a spot that should be light, is either removed with a clean sponge, or by diluted acid, applied with a sponge, and the place is afterwards washed with pure water. The printing-ink is composed, like other printing-inks, of oil-varnish and fine lamp-black. To prepare the varnish, a vessel is about half filled with pure linseed oil, and heated till it takes fire from the flame of a piece of burning paper. It is allowed to burn till reduced to the proper density. To describe the press, a drawing would be necessary. Besides the mode of preparing the drawings above described, drawings are also cut into the stone, and from these impressions are taken. Engravings may also be multiplied by putting them wet on a stone, when they come from the copperplate press, and subjecting them to pressure, by which the ink is made to leave the paper and adhere to the stone. Al

though lithography is of great use, and excellent impressions are produced, particularly at Munich, it is yet very imperfect. In landscapes, the soft tints and the perspective cannot be properly given; the lines are not sufficiently delicate. The number of impressions which can be taken from a lithographic chalk drawing, will vary according to the fineness of the tints. A fine drawing will give 400 or 500; a strong one, 1000 or 1500. Ink drawings and writings give considerably more than copper-plates. The finest will yield 6000 or 8000, and strong lines and writings many more. Upwards of 80,000 impressions have been taken, at Munich, from one writing of a form for regimental returns. But it is probably susceptible of farther improvements. Stone paper, a substitute for stone plates, was invented by Sennefelder, in 1817. (See Sennefelder's Vollstän diges Lehrbuch der Steindruckerey, Munich, 1818). Lithography is now very widely spread. In all parts of Germany, also in France, Russia, England and the U. States, there are lithographic printing establishments. The lithographic process is generally employed for printing music, and has given rise to lithochromics. (q. v.) The best lithographic establishments, at present, are at Munich (Bavaria) and Paris. The French are the most expert in the process of printing. Some beautiful lithographic prints have also been executed at Berlin.

LITHOTOMY is the name given to the operation for extracting the stone from the bladder. (See Stone.)

LITHOTRITY; a surgical operation, by which the stone in the bladder is crushed by an instrument invented and first applied by doctor Civiale, of Paris, in 1826. He has written on the subject,

LITHUANIA (in the language of the country, Litwa; in German, Lithauen); an extensive country, formerly an independent grand-duchy, containing 60,000 square miles, but in 1569 united to Poland. Since the dismemberment of that kingdom in 1773, 1793, and 1795, the greater portion of it has been united to Russia, and forms the governments of Mohilew, Witepsk, Minsk, Wilna and Grodno. The climate is temperate and healthy, and the face of the country nearly a level, interrupted only by a few insignificant hills. The soil is in some parts sandy; in others marshy, or covered with woods; but, wherever it is cultivated, very productive. The principal rivers are the Dűna, or Dwina, the Dnieper, the Niemen, the Przypiec and Bug. There are also many

lakes and morasses. Lithuania raises considerable numbers of cattle, and produces abundance of corn, flax, hemp, wood, honey, and wax. The mineral kingdom yields iron and turf. The forests are full of game; among the wild animals are the urus, lynx, elk, beaver, &c. Corn, wax, honey, wolf and bear skins, leather, wool, and small but good horses, are exported. The manufactures are iron, glass, leather, and there are numerous distilleries. The Lithuanians, who are of Lettish origin (see Livonia), were in the eleventh century tributary to Russia. They made themselves independent when Russia was divided by the troubles under the successors of Wladimir, and soon became formidable to their neighbors. Ringold, in 1235, bore the title of grand-duke, and, under his successors, the whole of Russian Lithuania was separated from Russia. Gedemin conquered Kiev; Wladislaus Yagello was baptized in 1386, and, by his marriage with the Polish queen Hedwig, united Lithuania and the conquered Russian provinces with Poland. A portion of Lithuania, 6675 square miles, with nearly 400,000 inhabitants, now forms part of Gumbinnen, in the province of East Prussia, and is fertile and well cultivated. (See Russia, and Poland.)

LITMUS; a blue paste or pigment obtained from the lichen parellus. It is brought from Holland at a cheap rate, but is not much used in painting, for the least acid reddens it; but the color is again restored by the application of an alkali. On this account, it is a very valuable test to the chemist for detecting the presence both of an acid and alkali. It is employed also for staining marble, and by silk dyers for giving a gloss to more permanent colors. Considerable quantities of the lichen are collected in the northern parts of Great Britain.

LITRE. (See France, division Decimal Measure.)

LITTER; a sort of vehiculary bed; a couch or chair wherein the Roman patricians were borne by their servants, particularly on solemn public occasions, such as triumphal pomps or religious ceremonies. These litters were mostly provided with an awning or canopy, to preserve their occupiers at once from the heat of the sun and from the general gaze.

LITTLE ROCK; the seat of government of Arkansas territory, which is sometimes called by the name of Acropolis or Arcopolis. It is a high bluff point on the south bank of the river Arkansas, and derives its name from the masses of stone

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about it. It is 300 miles from the mouth of the river by its course, and about half that distance in a direct line. The village of Acropolis was laid out in 1820, and is but small; 1237 miles west of Washington; lat. 34° 34' N.; lon. 92° 10′ W.

LITTLETON, OF LYTTLETON, Thomas, a celebrated English judge and law authority, born at the beginning of the fifteenth century, at Frankley, having been educated at one of the universities, was removed to the Inner Temple, where he studied the law, and became very eminent in his profession. In 1455, he went the northern circuit as judge of assize, and was continued in the same post by Edward IV, who also, in 1466, appointed him one of the judges of the common pleas. In 1475, he was created a knight of the Bath, and continued to enjoy the esteem of his sovereign and the nation until his death, at an advanced age, in 1481. The memory of judge Littleton is preserved by his work on Tenures, which has passed through a very great number of editions, those from 1539 to 1639 alone amounting to twenty-four. This work is esteemed the principal authority for the law of real property in England, while the commentary of sir E. Coke is the repository of his learning on the subjects treated.

LITTORALE; an Italian word signifying the sea coast, applied particularly to the Hungarian province on the coast of the Adriatic, comprising the three towns Fiume, Buccari and Porto-Re, with their territories, on the northern coast of Dalmatia. It formerly belonged to the military district of Croatia. The emperor Joseph II annexed it to. Hungary in 1776, and gave it civil government for the encouragement of Hungarian commerce. The district had, in 1787, 19,928 inhabitants upon 140 square miles. From 1809 to 1814, it formed part of the Illyrian provinces of France. In 1814, it was restored to the Austrian empire, and, in 1822, was reunited with the provinces of the crown of Hungary. The seat of government is at Fiume. (q. v.)

LITURGIA (Greek, Aarovoyta); the office of the Aarovoyot. These were persons in Athens, of considerable estates, who were ordered by their own tribe, or by the whole people, to perform some public duty, or supply the commonwealth with necessaries at their own expense. This institution indicates the rudeness of an age in which political science had made but little progress. These Maroveyou were of divers sorts, all elected out of 1200 of the richest citizens,

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who were appointed by the people to undertake, when required, all the burdensome and chargeable offices of the commonwealth, every tribe electing 120 out of their own body. These 1200 were divided into two parts, according to their wealth. Out of the wealthiest half, were appointed 300 of the richest citizens, who, upon all exigencies, were to furnish the commonwealth with necessary supplies of money, and, with the rest of the 1200, were to perform all extraordinary duties in turn. If any person, appointed to undergo one of the duties, could find another person more wealthy than himself, and free from all the duties, the informer was excused. This obnoxious institution was abolished on the proposition of Demosthenes. (See Wolf's Prolegomena to Demosthenes, Böckh's Political Economy of Athens, and Potter's Grecian Antiquities.)— The word Tovoyia is the origin of the English word liturgy (q. v.), the sense having become contracted from public ministry, in general, to the ceremonies of religious worship.

LITURGY (Greek, Maroupyia, from Arov, public, and yov, work); a precomposed form of public worship. It is merely our intention here to mention some of the most important liturgies, without entering at all into the question of the primitive forms of worship in the Christian church. There are three liturgies used in the Greek church-those of Basil, of Chrysostom, and of the Presanctified. They are used in all the Greek churches subject to the patriarch of Constantinople; also in the countries originally converted by the Greeks, as Russia, Georgia, Mingrelia, and by the Melchite patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. (King, Rites of the Greek Church.) There are various liturgical books in use in the Roman Catholic church, the greater part of which are common to all the members in communion with the church, while others are only permitted to be used in particular places, or by particular monasteries. The Breviary contains the matins, lauds, &c., with the variations made therein according to the several days, canonical hours, and the like. There are various breviaries appropriated only to certain places; as the Ambrosian breviary used in Milan, the Gallican, by the church of France, and those of different monastic orders; but the Roman breviary is general. It consists of the services of matins, lauds, prime, third, sixth, nones, vespers, complines, or the post-communie, that is, of the seven hours, on account of the saying of David, "Sev

en times a day do I praise thee." It is recited in Latin. The Missal, or volume employed in celebrating mass, contains the calendar, the general rubrics, or rites of the mass, and, besides such parts as are invariably the same, the de tempore, that is, the variable parts on Sundays and holydays that have proper masses; the proprium sanctorum, or the variable parts in the masses for the festivals of such saints as have proper masses; and commune sanctorum, or the variable parts on the feasts of those saints that have no proper mass. The canon of the mass was committed to writing about the middle of the fifth century. Gregory the Great made many additions to it. The Ceremonial contains the offices peculiar to the pope, treating of his election, consecration, benediction and coronation, the canonization of saints, the creation of cardinals, the vestments of the pope and cardinals when celebrating the divine offices, &c. The Pontificale describes the functions of the bishops of the Roman church, such as the conferring ecclesiastical orders, consecrating of churches, manner of excommunicating, absolving, &c. The Ritual treats of those functions which are to be performed by simple priests, or the inferior clergy, both in the public service of the church, and in the exercise of private pastoral duties. The ancient Gallican liturgy is that which was in use among the Gauls before the time of Pepin and Charlemagne, who introduced the Roman mode of celebrating divine worship. The Spanish liturgy, more commonly called the Mozarabic liturgy, is derived from that of Rome. The Ambrosian liturgy, used in the cathedral at Milan, derives its name from St. Ambrose, who made some changes in it. It does not differ from the Roman in doctrines, though it does in form. The whole of the Roman liturgy is in Latin. The Protestants all adopted their vernacular tongue in the celebration of divine service. In 1523, Luther drew up a liturgy, or form of prayer and administration of the sacraments, which, in many points, differed but little from the mass of the church of Rome (Opera, ii, 384). He did not, however, confine his followers to this form, and hence every country, in which Lutheranism prevails, has its own liturgy, agreeing with the others in the essentials, but differing in many things of an indifferent nature. The prayers are read or chanted by the minister at the altar, and the subject of the discourse is, in most cases, limited to the epistle or gospel of the day. A new liturgy for the principal