tion for the slaughter of the Brahmans in his wars, here set up the holy lingam.

MEANDER, now MEINDER; a river of Asia Minor, which takes its rise in Phrygia, on mount Celanus: it forms the boundary between Caria and Lydia, and flows into the Ægean sea between Priene and Miletus. It was celebrated among the ancients for its winding course. The name was thence transferred to the intertwined purple borders on mantles and other dresses, as well as upon urns and vases; hence, figuratively, meandering paths, meandering phrases; that is, artificial turns and circumlocutions, &c.

MECENAS, C. Cilnius, the favorite of Augustus, and patron of Virgil and Horace, traced his genealogy from the ancient Etrurian kings. He has been described as a pattern of every political virtue, and a most generous patron of the sciences. He was never, in fact, however, a public minister; for even the office of prefect of Italy and Rome, which he held after the victory at Actium, was only a private trust; and the notions which are entertained of him as the protector of the learned, and which have made his name proverbial, seem to be very much exaggerated. It is true that he collected at his table poets, wits and learned men of every description, if they were pleasant companions, sought their conversation, and sometimes recommended them to Augustus; but it was from political motives, for the purpose of gaining friends for Augustus, and extending his fame. It is true, also, that he gave Horace a farm, and obtained his pardon and freedom, and that he enabled Virgil to recover his property; but, for a man whom Augustus had made exorbitantly rich, the present to Horace was a trifle, and Virgil merely received from him what was justly his own. Mæceuas was not a man of great qualities; but he well understood how to employ the favors of fortune. Without strong passions and a lofty ambition; endowed with a fine taste and a sound judgment; prudent, and cool enough to do whatever he did rightly and thoroughly, and sanguine enough not to shrink before difficulties, and always to anticipate a happy result, but too fond of ease and pleasure to love or to pursue any business, if he was not compelled by necessity; of an agreeable person, gay in conversation, affable and generous; inclined to rally others, and equally willing to receive their attacks in return; artful, and skilful in employing others for his own purposes; careful in the choice of his intimate

191

friends, but faithful and constant after he had once chosen them; and, if necessity required, capable of any sacrifice;-these qualities gained him the confidence of Augustus, which he enjoyed undiminished till his death. Augustus used to banter him on his effeminacy, his love for curiosities, precious stones and gems, his affectation in mixing old Etrurian words with Latin, and making new words. In return, Mæcenas venture to make use of great freedom, or rather of severity of expression, as, for instance, during the triumvirate, when Octavius was in the tribunal, passing many sentences of death, Mæcenas presented him his tablets with the words, "Surge tandem, carnifex!" (Rise, executioner!)-a reprimand which produced its effect; and Octavius did not take offence at it. When Augustus consulted with Agrippa and Mæcenas, whether to retain or resign the supreme power, Mæcenas, in opposition to the advice of Agrippa, urged him to retain it. Thus he proved, that he preferred the profitable to the honorable. Mæcenas appears less worthy of esteem as a private man. He had a palace, in the form of a tower, on the Esquiline hill, which was surrounded with splendid gardens. Here, at the close of the civil wars, being about 40 years old, he resigned himself to indolence, luxury and frivolous pleasures. Of all spectacles, he was most fond of the pantomimic dance, which he himself introduced into Rome. Bathyllus (q. v.), who was famous for his beauty, and his skill in this exhibition, was his favorite. He was no less fond of the pleasures of the palate. His indolence betrayed itself in his dress, in his gait, in his manners, and even in his style. He died in the year of Rome 745. His writings are mentioned by Seneca, Isiodorus and others; but none of them are extant.

MAELSTROM, or MOSKOE-STROM ; a whirlpool in the North sea, near the island Moskoe. In summer, it is but little dangerous, but is very much so in winter, especially when the north-west wind restrains the reflux of the tide. At such times, the whirlpool rages violently, so as to be heard several miles, and to engulf small vessels, and even whales, which approach it.

MENADES (from paivopai, I am mad); a name applied to the Bacchanalians, the priestesses of Bacchus.

MEONIDES. (See Homer.) The Muses were likewise sometimes called Maonides, because Homer was viewed as their greatest favorite.

MEOTIS. Paius Mæotis was the name given by the ancients to what is now called the Sea of Azoph. (See Azoph.) MAESE. (See Meuse.) MAESTRICHT. (See Mastricht.) MAESTRO; the Italian for master, and not unfrequently used in maestro di capella, chapel-master. Maestro del sacro palazzo is the papal censor of books and the pope's confessor, a Dominican.

MAFFEI; a celebrated Veronese family, which has produced many eminent men. 1. Alessandro (marquis), born 1662, served under Maximilian Emanuel, in the campaigns against the Turks and the French, distinguished himself in the war of the Spanish succession, and, after the victory of Belgrade (1717), was made field-marshal, and died at Munich, in 1730. The memoirs which appeared under his name (Verona, 1737) were written by his brother, Scipio.-2. Bernardino, born at Rome, 1514, educated at Padua, created cardinal at the age of 35, died at the age of 40. He possessed a large collection of coins, of which he made use in his lost History from Medals.—3. Francesco Scipio (marquis), born at Verona, 1675, studied in the Jesuits' college at Parma, and went to Rome in 1698, where he devoted himself to poetry, and was received into the Arcadia. He afterwards entered the military career, served under his brother, Alexander, in the Spanish succession war, and, in 1704, was present at the 'battle of Donauwörth as a volunteer. His literary taste soon recalled him to Italy, where he wrote his Della Scienza chiamata Cavalleresca-a work full of learned research into the usages of the ancients in settling private quarrels, and in which he maintains, that duelling is contrary to religion, sound reason and the welfare of society. To improve the condition of Italian literature, the decline of which he lamented, he undertook, in connexion with Apostolo Zeno and Vallisnieri, the publication of a periodical, the object of which was to criticise native works, and make his countrymen acquainted with foreign literature. At the same time, he directed his attention to the Italian drama, which he enriched by his Teatro Italiano-a collection of the best comedies and tragedies (3 vols., 1723) and by his original tragedy of Merope. (See Italian Theatre, in the article Italy.) This production, although only a judicious essay towards uniting the Greek and French tragedy, met with the most brilliant success. His comedy La Ceremonia was also brought upon the stage with applause. To revive the study of

the Greek language, which was much neglected by his countrymen, he invited skilful teachers to Verona, whom he supported at his own expense. The discovery of soine important manuscripts in the cathedral of his native city, gave his learned labors a new turn, one of the results of which was Verona Illustrata (1731). Maffei's reputation had now extended to foreign countries, and, in 1732, he set out on a visit to France, England, Holland, and returned by the way of Vienna, where he was received in the most flattering manner by Charles VI. He died in Verona in 1755, and a monument is there erected to his memory. Among his numerous works, the most important, besides those already mentioned, are Rime e Prose (1719); Istoria diplomatica; Museum Veronense, and other writings relative to his native city. His complete works appeared at Venice (1790, 21 vols., 4to.)4. Giovanni Pietro, one of the most learned writers among the Jesuits, was born at Bergamo, in 1535, went to Rome, where he became acquainted with Annibal Caro and other distinguished men, became afterwards professor of rhetoric at Genoa, then secretary of the republic, and, two years later, entered the order of the Jesuits, in Rome. Having published a Latin translation of Acosta's History of India (1570), he was invited by Henry of Portugal to Lisbon, and employed to write a general history of India; for which purpose he had access to original documents in the archives. This work (Historiarum Indicarum Libri xvi) appeared at Florence, in 1588 (better edition, Cologne, 1593), and is characterized rather by beauty of style than by profoundness of research or acuteness of judgment. He died at Tivoli, 1603.-5. Paolo Alessandro, born at Volterra, 1653, died in Rome, where he had chiefly resided, in 1716. By an industrious study of museums and cabinets, he acquired an extensive knowledge of ancient works of art. His principal

works are Raccolta di Statue Antiche e Moderne (Rome, 1704), and an edition of Agostini's Gemme Antiche, which he enriched with valuable notes and additions; it is less prized by connoisseurs than the old and scarce edition of 1657, which is remarkable for the beauty of its engravings.

6. Raphael, called also Raphael of Volterra, born at Volterra, in the middle of the fifteenth century, died there in 1522. His chief work is Commentarii Rerum Urbanarum Libri xxxviii (Rome 1506), of which the first 23 books contain geographical and biographical treatises: the remainder

is a general view of the state of knowledge at that time.

MAFRA; a town of Portugal, province of Estremadura, six leagues north-west of Lisbon, containing a magnificent palace, erected by John V. It is constructed of marble, and is nearly a square of 728 feet. The church is placed in the centre of the fabric, having the palace on one side and the convent on the other. It was begun in 1717, and finished in 1742. A beautiful park and fine gardens are attached to it. The kings of Portugal have often resided here. The palace includes a college, which has a library of 40,000 or 50,000 volumes, and a fine mathematical apparatus. Population, 2,800. (See Murphy's splendid work, published in London, in 1791, the text of which is by Luis de Sousa.)

MAGADOXO, MAGADOSHO, OF MAKDISHO; a kingdom of Africa, situated on the coast of the Indian sea, extending from the river Jubo, near the equator, to beyond the fifth degree of north latitude. How far it extends to the westward, is not known. It has its name from its capital, situated in a large bay, formed, as has been said, by the mouth of the river of the same name, which is called by the Arabs the Nile of Magadoxo, by reason of its annual overflowing. Owen's chart (1827) lays down no river between the Jubo and 8° north, an extent of 500 miles. The city of Magadoxo is a place of great commerce, and vast resort from the kingdoms of Aden, and other parts; whence their merchants bring cotton, silk and other cloths, spices, and a variety of drugs, which they exchange with the inhabitants for gold, ivory, wax, and other commodities. It is chiefly inhabited by Mohammedans. The town is situated in lon. 45° 19′ E.; lat. 2° 1' N.

MAGALHAENS, or MAGELLAN, Fernando de; a famous Portuguese navigator, who discovered the straits at the extremity of South America, and conducted the first expedition round the world. He served under Albuquerque in the East Indies, and distinguished himself, especially at the taking of Malacca, in 1510. He afterwards entered into the service of Spain, and was intrusted, by Charles V, with the command of a fleet destined to explore a passage to the Molucca islands, by sailing westward. The voyage was commenced September 20, 1519. About the end of October, 1520, he entered the straits since called after his name, and, on the 27th of November, discovered the Pacific ocean. Continuing his course, he arrived 17

VOL. VIII.

193

at the Ladrone islands, and subsequently at the Philippines, on one of which he lost his life, in a skirmish with the natives, in 1521. MAGAZINES. (See Periodicals.)

MAGDALEN, OF MARY OF MAGDALA, & city on the lake of Galilee, in Palestine, by an old erroneous interpretation, is confounded with the sinner mentioned in Luke vii, whose name is not given, and who, on account of her repentance and trust in Christ, was assured by him of the forgiveness of her sins. The history of her conversion from a licentious life being confounded with the story of Mary of Magdala (see Mary), the ideal of St. Magdalen was formed, and has given occasion to some of the most celebrated productions of the pencil. Penitent females who had lived licentious lives, early banded together, and formed a religious order, under the protection of St. Magdalena, which existed in Germany before 1215; and similar institutions arose about the same time in France, Italy and Spain. In France, they termed themselves Madelonettes. They adopted the rules of St. Augustine, and formed various congregations, distinguished by the color of their dress (white, gray or black), and by the different degrees of strictness in their mode of life. This order, which admitted, at first, only courtesans and females who had lost their honor, has spread into both Indies; and, although the members of it were only bound to social exercises of devotion, and did not apply themselves to useful offices, and have, moreover, departed from their ancient laws, by the reception of virtuous women, yet the institutions continue till the present day. The Catholic Magdalen establishments now remaining in Protestant countries, have been obliged to devote themselves to the care of the sick; such as that at Lauban, in Upper Lusatia.

Magdalen Societies, so called from the view of the character of Mary Magdalen already given, have also been established, of late years, to afford a retreat to penitent prostitutes, and enable them to pursue the work of their own reformation. Such a society was established in London, in 1758, principally by the exertions of doctor Dodd, and, since that period, between 4000 and 5000 abandoned women have enjoyed the benefits of the establishment, and have been restored to their families and society. By far the greater number of those who have been protected here have subsequently continued respectable and correct in their behavior. No female who has conducted herself with propriety

194

in the house, is allowed to leave it unprovided for. Similar societies also exist in some of our principal cities.

MAGDALENA, a large river of South America, rises from lake Pampas, in the Colombian province Cundinamarca, receives many other rivers, and falls, after a course of 900 miles, by two branches, into the Caribbean sea. It contains numerous alligators. It gives name to a department of Colombia. There is another river of the same name in Texas.

MAGDALENE ISLANDS; a cluster of islands, seven in number, situated in the gulf of St. Lawrence, about 42 miles northwest from the island of Cape Breton. They are thinly inhabited by fishermen. Lon. 61° 40′ W.; lat. between 47° 13′ and 47° 42' N.

MAGDEBURG, one of the most important fortresses of Germany, and, from the time of Charlemagne, of considerable commercial interest, capital of the former duchy, and present Prussian government of the same name, in the province of Saxony, is situated on the left bank of the Elbe, which is crossed by a wooden bridge, about 95 miles from Berlin; lon. 11° 38′ E.; lat. 52° 8′ N.; with 36,600 inhabitants, exclusive of the garrison. Magdeburg, with her 16 bastions, extensive outworks, &c., forms one of the strongest fortresses of Europe, and commands the middle Elbe. The Gothic cathedral is worthy of notice. Magdeburg has two excellent gymnasia, many other establishments, and considerable transit trade between the coasts and the interior of Germany, with some manufactures, &c. In 1743, a canal was constructed uniting the Elbe and Havel, and, therefore, the Elbe and Oder. Magdeburg was the favorite residence of Otho I. The town took an active part in the reformation. It was taken by assault, May 20 (10), 1631, by the Catholic generals Tilly and Pappenheim, and was the scene of great cruelties. In 1806, it was dishonorably surrendered, by general Kleist, to Ney, after the battle of Jena. By the peace of Tilsit, it was ceded to France, which annexed it to the kingdom of Westphalia, and, by the peace of Paris, it was restored to Prussia. Carnot lived here, when in banishment as a regicide, and died here.

MAGDEBURG, CENTURIES OF. (See Centuries of Magdeburg.)

MAGELLAN. (See Magalhaens.) MAGELLAN, STRAITS OF; passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, at the southern extremity of the continent of America; upwards of 300 miles in

length, from cape Virgin, in the Atlantic, to cape Desire, in the Pacific ocean, in some places several leagues over, and in others not half a league. The passage through these straits is difficult and dangerous. Lon. 70° to 77° W.; lat. 52° 30 to 54° S.

MAGELLANIC CLOUDS; whitish appearances, like clouds, seen in the heavens towards the south pole, and having the same apparent motion as the stars. They are three in number, two of them near each other. The largest lies far from the south pole; but the other two are about 11° distant. They may be multitudes of stars, like the milky way.

Ma

MAGELLONA THE BEAUTIFUL; the name of an old French novel, reproduced in various forms, in many languages, probably composed in the eleventh or twelfth century, by a Provençal minstrel. gellona is the daughter of the king of Naples; Peter, son of the count of Provence, is her lover. Petrarch is said to have given the present form to the novel. Its title is L'Histoire du noble et vaillant Chevalier Pierre de Provence et aussi de la belle Maguellone, Fille du Roy de Naples (1496, 1524, 1625). There are other editions, without year and place. The duke of Marlborough paid, in 1813, for a copy in folio, £22 is. Lope de Vega made use of the subject in his drama the Three Diamonds. (See Millin's Voyage en France, vol. iv, p. 354; also Görres's Deutsche Volksbücher.)

MAGGIORE, LAKE. (See Lago Maggiore.) MAGIANS (Magi) derive their name from mog or mag, which signifies priest in the Pehlvi language. (See Indian Languages.) They were the caste of priests with the Persians and Medians. They were in exclusive possession of scientific knowledge. As sacrifices and prayer could be offered to Ormuzd only through them; as Ormuzd revealed his will only to them, and they therefore could pry into futurity; in short, as they were considered mediators between the people and the Deity, they necessarily possessed great authority, which they abused. Zoroaster was their reformer. He divided them into learners, teachers and perfect teachers. (For the doctrine of Zoroaster, see the article.)

MAGIC. Men, as soon as they began to observe the phenomena around them, could not help seeing the close connexion which exists between man and external nature. When the sun sets, he wants rest, and sleep approaches with night; atmospheric changes affect his health; certain

wounds become painful with the change of weather, or at certain phases of the moon; some men are painfully affected in the presence of particular animals (see Antipathy); certain liquids exhilarate, others destroy life. Such and similar observations, combined with many of an erroneous and exaggerated character, springing from credulity and ignorance, soon led men to treat this mysterious connexion of man and nature, and the influence of things or causes without him, upon his mind and body, as a peculiar science, which, when occupations were not yet divided, of course belonged to the priests, whose exclusive possession of knowledge made them the guides of men in science and the arts as well as in religion. This is considered, by some, the natural origin of supernatural magic; others, on the contrary, believe that there once actually existed a deeper knowledge of the powers and influences of nature, transmitted from earlier and purer ages, but lost with increasing folly and guilt; and others believe that men once possessed the means of producing supernatural effects with the assistance of evil spirits, as those particularly gifted by Providence were able to produce supernatural effects with the assistance of God. Maia, the eternal mother of things, is, in the Indian mythology, the goddess of intellectual as well as of sensual love. In another signification, she is the muse, the goddess of prophecy and poetry, and also of deception; and the word magic seems to be connected with this root, of so various, yet easily conjoined meanings. Media, Persia, and the neighboring countries, famous for their knowledge of astronomy and astrology, are described as the chief seats of the ancient magi, whose doctrine seems to be, in part, of great antiquity. This doctrine represented opposition or strife as the parent and original cause of all things. After the opposition between light and darkness, Ormuzd and Ahriman, was established, the whole series of finite beings, the whole sensual world, proceeded from this constant struggle of light and darkness, good and evil. The change of day and night, light and darkness, the whole series of ages, time itself, is only a consequence of this struggle, in which sometimes light, sometimes darkness, appears victorious, until finally light shall conquer forever. If all finite things stand under the influence of preserving and destroying powers in nature, it is clear that he who could master these powers could dispose, at his pleasure, of the things subject to them;

195

and the doctrine of the Magians was, that, by prayer and a true knowledge of those laws of opposition, love and hatred, light and darkness, such power could be obtained; and that thus, also, it was possible to pry into futurity. But it was believed that as the world became sinful, the light of the ancient doctrine of the magi was obscured, and those who bore the name became, at last, only evil-disposed sorcerers. One important branch of their art was, now, the excitement of love by potions and enchantments. Their love-potions consisted partly of ingredients, which are still known to physicians as stimulants, partly of parts of animals who had died longing for food or air, or the saliva of hungry dogs, and other still more disgusting substances. Magic, at this period, also occupied itself with fortune-telling, calling up the dead, bewitching by the look (with the Romans and Greeks, jettatura) a superstition which we find existing in the processes against witches in modern times, with the preparation of amulets, the inflicting of pain on a person by correspondent applications to his image in wax, &c. He who wishes to become acquainted with the poetical side of magic, ought to read the Arabian Nights (q. v.). It can hardly be doubted, that the art of the ancient magicians was founded, to a considerable degree, upon a superior knowledge of the powers of nature. The name of the magnet, magnes, or enchanting stone (according to one derivation,) seems to indicate that it was not unknown to the magi; and some of their phenomena seem referable to galvanism.-Interesting information on this subject is contained in Kleuker's Zendavesta, and still more in his Magikon, which contains the history of numerous secret doctrines; see also Creuzer's Symbolik und Mythologie; Windischmann's Inquiries respecting Astrology, Alchemy and Magic, (in German, Frankfort, 1818); also, George Conrad Horst, On Ancient and Modern Magic, its Nature, Origin and History (in German), with his Zauberbibliothek (6 vols., Mentz, 1820-25). (See Divination, Demon, Witchcraft.)

MAGINDANAO. (See Mindanao.) MAGISTER ARTIUM. (See Master of Arts.) MAGISTER EQUITUM. (See Master of the Horse.)

MAGISTER MATHESEOS. (See Pythagoras.)

MAGISTRATE; a public civil officer, invested with the executive government or some branch of it. Thus, in monarchical governments, a king is the highest or first