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THE END AT BOGOTÁ

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November 24 following. On October 31, therefore, our relations with Colombia, in connection with an Isthmian canal, ceased. There was apparently nothing to do but to turn to Nicaragua. But before that could be done, there came a revolution.

CHAPTER X

THE PANAMA REVOLUTION

THE Colombian Congress adjourned on October 31. On November 3, occurred the Panama Revolution. It was by no means unexpected. As I have said in the preceding chapter, the menace of it and the preparations for it had been known for months in New York, at Washington, at Panamá, and at Bogotá. In order, however, to understand its causes and its justification perfectly, we must turn back to the time of Bolivar himself. Colombia, or New Granada, was one of the first Spanish provinces of South America to establish its independence from Spain, in 1819. At the same time it showed itself one of the least worthy of such a state. In the words of Quijano Otero, a historian of that time, "Colombia had lived so fast in her years of glory and great deeds that, though still a child, she was already entering a premature decrepitude." It was actually proposed to establish a monarchy, and the plans to that end were so strongly pushed that Bolivar was moved to seek for aid in preventing their consummation. With the monarchical scheme and with the general turbulence and lack of progress, the more orderly and enterprising people of Panama were disgusted. While Colombia, or, rather, the provinces of New Granada, Venezuela, and Quito, or Ecuador, became independent in 1819, it was not until November 28, 1821, that the two Isthmian provinces of Panama and Veraguas made their Declaration of Independence. Thereupon they voluntarily allied themselves with New Granada. But in a few years much dissatisfaction arose, and in 1830 many of the foremost Isthmians regarded the union as a grievous mistake and began agitating for its repeal.

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ISTHMIAN DISCONTENT

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It was in 1819 that Bolivar overthrew the Spanish power and, at the Congress of Angostura, established under its first Constitution the Republic of Colombia, consisting of the three provinces of Venezuela, Quito (now Ecuador), and New Granada, the last named corresponding with the Colombia of later years. In 1821, that Constitution, with some changes, was reenacted by the Colombian Constitutional Congress at Cucuta, and it was maintained until 1830. In that year the Republic was broken up into three parts, Venezuela, Ecuador, and New Granada, each becoming an independent state, and a Constitutional convention at Bogotá enacted and proclaimed a "fundamental law" for "the State of New Granada." This instrument was not fully sanctioned until 1832, wherefore it is known historically as the Constitution of 1832. Meantime, as we have said, discontent arose in Panama, and in 1830 a great mass meeting was held, presided over by the Governor of Panama, General J. D. Espinar, a distinguished veteran of the War of Independence, at which resolutions were adopted calling for "separation from the rest of the Republic, and especially from the government of Bogotá." It was proposed to establish an independent republic, and even, according to Otero, to seek the protection of, or annexation to, Great Britain, if freedom from Bogotan oppression and misgovernment could in no other way be assured. In the end, however, as a mark of personal deference to Bolivar, these plans were laid aside and Panama remained a member of the New Granadan federation, though against the better judgment of a large part of the Isthmian people.

Ten years later, the provocation being not alleviated but aggravated, Panama arose in determined revolt. On November 18, 1840, under the leadership of the famous Colonel Tomas Herrera, its independence was proclaimed and actually established, and on March 18, 1841, a fundamental law, preliminary to a Constitution, was adopted. which read in part as follows:

"Article I.-The Cantons of the former provinces of Panama and Veraguas shall compose a sovereign and independent State, which shall be constituted under the title of State of the Isthmus.

"Article II. Should the government of New Granada be organised according to the federal system and convenient to the interests of the Isthmus, the latter shall form a State of the Confederation.

"Special. In no case shall the Isthmus be incorporated with the Republic of New Granada under the system of Central Government.”

It is interesting to recall, by the way, that this fundamental law was signed by José de Obaldia, President; by Mariano Arosemena, Vice-President, and by Antonio Amador, a Deputy of the convention-family names which are to-day honourably conspicuous in the public life of Panama. It was also countersigned by the Secretary-General of the provisional government, José Agustin Arango, whose son, José Agustin Arango, Jr., was one of the foremost leaders in establishing the present Republic of Panama in 1903. Tomas Herrera was unanimously chosen "Chief of State."

Thus Panama became an independent republic in name and in fact. Presently Carthagena followed the example and declared its independence. But the government at Bogotá, alarmed at this result of its own evil doings, and unable by force to undo the revolution, sent General Tomas C. de Mosquera to Panama to negotiate a return of the Isthmian State to the New Granadan federation. He made many promises, which were doubtless sincere so far as he was personally concerned, of decentralisation, reforms, and better times for all members of the federation, with the result that in 1842-3 Panama was induced to rejoin New Granada. Immediately thereafter, however, and unquestionably as a result of the action of Panama, Veraguas, and Carthagena, in 1843, a new Constitution was adopted at Bogotá, practically repudiating the promises which had been made by Mosquera, and making the government even more centralised than before. Under it the country was

"THE STATE OF PANAMA”

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called the "Republic of New Granada" instead of "State of New Granada," and was divided into provinces, the provinces into cantons, and the cantons into parishes. Everything was subordinated to centralised power, and the attempt to secede or to withdraw from the union, as Panama had done in 1840, was made a penal offence against the common criminal law.

Against this constitution Panama protested vigorously, amid the various civil wars which followed, with the result that on May 28, 1853, the "Constitution of 1853" was promulgated in place of that of 1843. Under it a federal system was established, giving the various provinces a considerable measure of autonomy. This was not, however, sufficient to satisfy the just demands of the Isthmians, and agitation was accordingly continued until, on February 27, 1855, the Congress at Bogotá enacted an amendment to the Constitution, specifically erecting "the territory which comprises the provinces of the Isthmus of Panama, to wit, Panama, Azuero, Veraguas, and Chiriqui"-the present Republic of Panama-into "a sovereign federal state, integral part of New Granada, under the name of the State of Panama.” In addition, power was given to the other provinces to become such states also. This amendment was unanimously adopted. For six years then following peace and prosperity prevailed in Panama, under the presidential administration of Justo Arosemena, Francisco de Fabrega, Bartholome Calvo, Ramon Gamboa, Rafael Nuñez, and José de Obaldia. In 1856 Antioquia also became a state. In 1857 the other provinces were all made states, and in 1858 the federal system was extended throughout the whole of New Granada, which again changed its name and became known as the "Granadine Confederation."

The next year, however, a packed Congress enacted an election law and other measures greatly infringing upon the sovereignty of the states and aiming at the perpetuation of the power of the conservative party under President Ospina. Thereupon the State of Cauca rebelled, under the lead of

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