THE SILK TRADE. dead stop, and, pricking his ears, snorted with evident alarm at some object or objects as yet invisible to myself. Presently, as daylight opened around us, I discovered what I supposed in my terror to be Master Billy, sneaking up towards us by the side of the hedge. In an instant I wheeled the pony's head homeward, and we were off at full tilt. As I galloped by my sister, who was evidently surprised at my sudden and rapid return, she anxiously inquired the motive, and my reply was such as to accelerate her speed to literally a flying pitch, for she flew aud pitched into the nearest strath, flinging her nephew in the action clean 417 over the opposite hedge. Hauling up my pony abruptly so as to ascertain the amount of damage, I went flying over its head, and completed the tableau of indubitable panic. Had the tiger really been upon our track, one or the other must inevitably have fallen victims. It turned out, however, to be nothing more dangerous than a donkey cropping by the hedge side; but my sister had injured her knees so severely that very nearly a month had elapsed before she was able to walk. What else happened at Chittoor will be seen in my next chapter. THE SILK TRADE. THE existing high rate of interest astonishes all who pay it. Specie flows into this country in almost incredible quantities, but as every steamer to the East takes each fortnight an enormous sum, neither the Banks of England or of France show that any great addition has been made to the stock held by them. What becomes of the money? The harvest of 1856 was, taking the whole of Europe, extremely deficient, but England has not demanded supplies to cause a drain upon bullion. This was formerly the great obstacle to a low rate of discount. A good harvest used to be followed by low prices, and, therefore, prosperity. Cotton, the great staple manufacture of the country, is at present at a value which forbids any profit to the manufacturer, and by all accounts the next crop in the United States of America will be even less than the last, or at least be more than proportionably deficient for the increased consumption; yet each ship from New York has a large sum of bullion on board, and her successor a still larger, until the greater portion of the produce of the Californian gold fields has found its way to England, but not to remain. The truth is, that Europe is now but one family, and that which affects any one particular member of it, affects the whole in some greater or less degree. The silk crop in the south of Europe has failed for several successive seasons, and the same result has been produced in that portion of the world which it is feared may be seen in this country, if our dedependence upon the supply of cotton be not removed from the United States to other parts of the globe. The catalogue of kingdoms suffering from the failure of this, their principal, article, is lamentable; France, Spain, Sardinia, Tuscany, Naples, and Turkey. From China alone can a portion be recovered, and to purchase it may the extraordinary demand for silver be partly traced. It is a singular fact, that no trade has been so jealously guarded by the operatives engaged in it than this has been, neither, perhaps, has any one been the source of more outrages, France long had the monopoly of the manufacture, and its introduction here was the consequence of religious persecution there. It was originally planted in Spitalfields and in Bethnal-green, which was then a suburb, and is at present the chief seat of the London market. The houses in this district have a peculiar appearance, unlike any other part of the town-tall buildings, with the top, and floor im mediately under it (if the house be sufficiently high), with a single window occuppying the whole of the front, and one similar at the back, in order to allow the greatest possible quantity of light to enter. In Bethnal-green, on the contrary, until very recently, the whole space was occupied by neat but small dwellings, situated in a garden, which was always beautifully cultivated, and contained very many choice flowers. To the inhabitants of this particular locality horticulture is greatly indebted for some of the choicest specimens which now ornament our green houses. A love of the country appears to be so deeply rooted among silk weavers, that where a rural walk is unattainable, a substitute is actually necessary, and is developed in gardening and rearing birds; if the former be not practicable, then cut flowers and bird cages supply their place. Sir Robert Peel afforded a great boon, and did much to improve the morals of the disorderly part of the community-not weavers, for, as a rule, they are sober and industrious-by the formation of the Victoria-park; and one of the brightest deeds of Bishop Blomfield was in dividing this large and poor, and therefore necessarily neglected, parish into ten districts. The late Bishop never relaxed his exertions until he had provided each with a church and schools, and a provision, very small in some cases, for the clergyman. It is much to his credit, that when any rich London living fell in, a portion of the income of the new rector was made available for the purpose of increasing the stipends of these churches. In the second case which happened, his son was the instituted clergyman, but he had to content himself with two-thirds of 418 YEARLY CONSUMPTION OF THE RAW MATERIAL. his predecessor's income, and to pay over the dif ference, between five and six hundred a-year, to his poorer brethren, to the foreign article was mainly attributable to the superior beauty of the pattern. Whence this difference arose will be alluded to afterward. During the period of protection, though great improvements had been made in the machines, they had not been such as had taken place in other branches, the looms worked were of the original, and, therefore, of perhaps the worst possible con As the chief seat of this trade in England has been in Spitalfields, so that of its great rival, France, has been and remains at Lyons. The history of one will exactly be that of the other. A fear of competition, a dread of machinery, and riots to prevent innovation have been the charac-struction; and it was calculated that, in certain teristics of each. In the early part of the reign parts of the continent, as much as forty times more of George the Third, the whole British metropolis goods, in quantity, could be turned out in the space was kept in a state of agitation by the proceed of a single day than could have been done in Engings of the "Cutters," a term adopted by dis- land. One of our greatest merchants considered contented workmen who feared improvement. The that were the competition of foreign manufacture outrages thus committed were most daring; once admitted, it would be impossible to stand houses broken open, silk cut from the looms, and against it. Government, however, persisted, and personal violence frequently resorted to. These competition was allowed. The result was, that in riots were put down only by the most sanguinary the ten years previous to the relaxation, the yearly and energetic measures, such as would not be average consumption of silk was 1,940,902 lbs. per thought of by the present generation. It was not year, while in the ten years immediately succeeding uncommon for four, six, or eight of these criminals the change it had increased to 3,958,537 lbs., or to be executed upon a scaffold erected in the im- from 2,253,513 lbs., in 1826, to 4,684,499 lbs., in mediate neighbourhood. In France similar scenes 1833; from 1832 to 1851, the quantity used was were enacted, on account of the introduction of 4,829,415 lbs. per annum; from 1852 to 1856, it the Jacquard loom, the inventor of which was had averaged 7,581,283 lbs. in each of the five destined to be of the utmost advantage to his years, having risen from 6,258,014 lbs. in the first, trade, being compelled to hide in order to save his to 8,536,687 lbs. in the last named. This fiscal life-the wooden part publicly burnt in the market alteration had caused the employment of improved place, and the ironwork sold for the value of the machinery; so much so, that within six years of its old material. Jacquard, however, lived long first operating, we were actually sending our proenough to see his machine used throughout Europe, ductions to France; and, since the trade has been and to receive high honours from the state. fully thrown upon us, we successfully compete in died but a few years since, near his native town, foreign markets as well as in our own with all Lyons, at an advanced age. other producers. He During all this time the strictest monopoly was given to either country for its own productions, no importation being permitted, except at a prohibitory duty, nevertheless India handkerchiefs, or bandanas, were commonly used by gentlemen in Britain, as French ribbons were by the higher classes of English ladies. How either were procured was, of course, unknown by the Customhouse officials. The great improvement which had been effected in spinning machinery stimulated similar efforts for weaving silk, and, accordingly, Coventry became celebrated for its ribbons, and Derby and Manchester for the production of general articles. The consumption of raw silk in Great Britain rose from 1,088,334 lbs.. in 1816, to 4,011,048 lbs., in 1824. In durability and goodness of manufacture we had no competitors; but in patterns the French were far before us. In 1826, the first experiment in free trade was made by abolishing prohibitory duties, and goods, the produce of France, were then admitted, but still with a high rate of protection to our own weavers. The change naturally produced much distress, though ample time had been given to prepare for it; in 1825, the consumption of the raw material declined to 3,804,058 lbs. ; in 1826, to 2,253,513 lbs. Parliamentary committees were appointed to inquire into the cause of the depression, and the evidence proved that the preference given As the manufacture of silk had been originally introduced into England from France by settlers, so had it been transmitted from Italy to that kingdom by Italian immigrants. The French Government were importuned to prevent competitition, but as, at that period, commerce yielded to political expediency, anything of the kind was refused, and thereupon the French tried to improve their machines, in order to outstrip their rivals. They soon equalled, and, in many articles surpassed their opponents, introducing new fabrics, which even to the present day are only to be obtained from Lyons. This example, however, was lost to our operatives, who continued to go on with their former rude system, until they were in self-defence obliged to do for silk what had been done for cotton. It is not very many years ago, quite within our own remembrance, that winding silk was a staple employment for the juvenile population in various metropolitan suburbs, hosts of little boys and girls being employed on account of the delicacy of their fingers. Sufficient improvement was, however, made in machinery to create a preference in favour of English goods, on account of their superior manufacture and durability; while, at the same time the importation of the light articles from Europe furnished our artizans with fresh and superior patterns. To raise ourselves to something like an THE SILK CROP IN FRANCE AND ITALY. equality in this respect was the object of the Schools of Design, which have certainly created something like a complete revolution in articles dependent upon artistic effect. The natives of the Southern parts of Europe are supposed to have a greater degree of taste than is to be found in the Northern and Middle districts. It was not uncommon to see operative weavers walking in the neighbourhood of Lyons, gathering and arranging flowers in various groups, in order to bring the colours into perfect harmony. A similar feeling was inculcated on their children, and the result of their united efforts was the production of patterns which were adopted by their employers. The state had also seen the necessity of cultivating the taste, as competition had to be feared from Italy and Switzerland, where wages were much below even the Lyons rates, and accordingly, knowing that the foreign demand was sustained solely by the superior beauty of their fabrics, a school of art was formed. Every lad who showed any taste for designing was laid hold of in a somewhat compulsory manner, and received gratuitous instruction for five years. Every subject which bore upon art, as connected with manufactures was here taught. There was an anatomical class well supplied with subjects from the hospitals, being placed in the same position as surgical schools; a class of study from the living model, in which beautiful infants were great favourites; another for architecture, to form acquaintance with different styles, which were found to be most important in drawing patterns of a formal character. There was a botanical garden where the arrangement of flowers in hues and forms was taught; then painting landscapes and other branches of art; and, finally, a professor whose object it was to apply machinery to art, and to show how a pattern which had been designed was to be trans ferred to silk. About a quarter of a century ago, an individual left £40,000 for founding a similar establishment, but entirely for improving the silk manufacture; yet the pupils were not compelled to limit the application of their talents to Lyons exclusively, though practically they did so, on account of the eagerness of the manufacturers to avail themselves of their assistance. That nothing might be omitted which might conduce to the proposed object, the conductors of the Municipal Academy formed a small collection of natural history, and procured casts from the Elgin Marbles, and also from the best sculptures of Italy, or from wherever else they could be obtained, with any hope of any advantage to their students. When a manufacturer required a designer in his establishment, the institution was the the source of supply, and two or perhaps three were selected and taken into employment, first at a very fair salary, which increased according to merit until frequently a share of the manufactory rewarded the designers' exertions. In England there was nothing of the kind, drawing was an exceptional acquirement, and confined 419 almost exclusively to the children of the better classes; and although pattern designing had formerly become a separate and lucrative business, cotton manufacturers were the only persons who could give employment to those who followed it, owing to the quick and certain return which they obtained for their goods. This deficiency made itself known to Government about 1833, when a petition was presented to found, or to assist similar schools here, but some years elapsed before the plan was brought into operation, and not then until it had encountered considerable opposition. Pupils soon showed that they would derive benefit from good instruction, and within a short period the advantage of teaching has so far developed itself as to render the new museum at Kensington absolutely necessary. Our Government has gone a step in advance of the French in one respect, namely, in bringing the objects of vertu home to the doors of the artizans, to the majority of whom they would otherwise have been imperviously sealed, had they remained in London. A selection has accordingly been made of them, which is carefully packed, and transmitted through competent parties for exhibition in central towns during a prescribed period. But to the Exhibition of 1851 much is owing. The importance of the silk crop to France may be estimated by the quantity of cocoons gathered; how much silk these may yield we do not exactly know. The average of fair years is from fifteen to eighteen million kilogrammes; in 1853, the largest quantity ever known was collected, amounting to twenty-six millions, while in 1856, the total yield did not exceed seven and a half millions. For the last fifteen years the quantity of raw silk they have sent to us has been gradually decreasing from 1,156,498 lbs., in 1842, until it has dwindled down to 157,559 lbs. in 1856. The quantity they have themselves taken from Italy, may be inferred by the decline which has taken place in our receipts. We had from The crop at the present time shows a probability of another large deficiency, though vast importations have been made of eggs into Europe. The origin of the decrease has not yet been traced, neither has it been ascertained how the epidemic affects the worm; the result, however, is, that they grow sickly, and die previous to the formation of the cocoon. It is thought to be somewhat analogous to the vine disease, and to the potato rot, both of which providentially appear to be dying out. But the accounts from other countries lead to a fear that 1857 will fall far short of the requirements of commerce in silks. In Naples and Spain there is much decrease, and a prospect of not half a crop; in Lombardy and Piedmont matters are quite as bad, and the cocoon will 420 SILK IMPORTED FROM INDIA AND CHINA. crop, come late to maturity; in Turkey, where a fair | has, of course, been "discounted," and the silk yield was expected, the gathering will be short- "discounted" also to meet it, but if the in Sicily and Calabria only are there good pros- latter be not, the poor Italians will not be able to pects. The fact of the machinery in France being minister to the requirements of Austria. principally adapted only for the lighter descriptions of goods places their manufacturers at a disadvantage to ourselves, who depend chiefly upon China and India for our supplies. The total production of Italy may be represented by the figures 125, and the proportion of each state will be Very recent accounts point out the serious consequences likely to result from the failure of this crop, which will probably be smaller this year than had been anticipated. Some light also is thrown upon the cause of the disease, and its probable future consequences. The ova of the worm is itself vitiated, and that to a considerable extent. This was previously known to be the case, and efforts had been made to procure healthy substitutes. Instead of such being sent, some equally as bad were forwarded. The depreciation therefore, it is feared, may become permanent. A disease, precisely similar to that which has been affecting the vines, has also appeared among the mulberry trees, the leaves turn yellow, and the fruit drops off. An ingenious Frenchman has hit upon the idea that if silk worms produce silk, and, that if the worms be nourished by the mul berry, ergo, silk ought to be produced from the tree itself without the intervention of the worm, and accordingly, the trees in his neighbourhood have been stripped of their foliage, for the sake of experiment. This loss of the tree itself will, of course, suspend the practical portion of his theory, for the present, at least. Even should this loss be not extended beyond Lombardy, and it is feared that it will make its way into the surrounding districts, the Government have serious misgivings as to the result. In common with all the southern parts of Europe, the grain crop last year was very deficient. This had greatly impoverished the peasantry, and if a total, or nearly, a total loss of their chief saleable, in contra-distinction to con. sumable, crop takes place, it is not expected that public feeling can be restrained under a double scarcity. In a financial point of view, also, it is of great importance. Some time since, a voluntary loan, as it was called, was subscribed, for national purposes. That is to say, you subscribe what you please, but if the poor landholder did not reach the estimate of the assessor, a gentle hint was givensomething similar to the proceedings of our income tax commissioners under schedule D. The loan Experience has proved the Lyonese workmen to be foremost in political emeutes and insurrections at the first moment of want of employment, and the great object of the masters has been to procure supplies of the raw article at almost any sacrifice, in preference to working short time, or laying by. For two or three years great complaints have been made by them of unremunerating prices, and latterly many establishments have been kept still going only by diminishing money capital. The importations of silk into the United King dom last year amounted to leaving 2,881,943 lbs. derived from other sources, chiefly from Europe. The greater part of this balance arises in waste, of which France sent 702,856 lbs., and Holland, from the Prussian fac tories, 713,328 lbs. The Parliamentary return, whence these figures are derived, while it renders it impossible to discriminate between the quantity from China and Bengal respectively, show the immense and growing importance of the overland route. The year 1842 was the first in which Egypt sent any silk to this country, when 888 lbs. was imported from thence, 1,195,433 lbs. from Bengal, and 264,300 lbs. from China; in 1856, the quantities were 2,514,356 lbs. via Egypt, 610,422 lbs. direct from Bengal, and 3,753,693 lbs. from China. While the total importation from China cannot be exactly given, the quantity received from the ports of that country direct exhibits an immense increase, and shows how important it is that our commercial intercourse with them should be undisturbed. The arrivals were, in GEORGE STEPHENSON. Our shipments of bullion to India were, up to the end of May, at the rate of eighteen millions sterling per annum; in June alone, we sent out £1,900,000, which would have been larger could insurance upon it have been effected; of this, £1,106,000 went to China direct, and most of the remainder will find its way there from Calcutta and Bombay. The failure of the crop in Europe, and the consequent demand on China for silk will explain, to a great extent, the immense demand upon France and England for silver. The experience of thirty years has proved how unfounded was the fear of rivalry, and that the trade would be driven hence by foreign importation. As we have before said the chief article of competition was Indian versus Spitalfields handkerchiefs. The former used to be substantial, good, and sufficiently durable (if not stolen, for pickpockets existed in those days as well as at the present time), to last an ordinary life-time; or, at least, for many years, and then were a present for a servant's neck. The latter, on the contrary, were then highly dressed, of good appearance, but of most flimsy texture, completely destroyed in the first wash. The present generation is entirely ignorant of an "Indian silk handkerchief;" it is doubtful if they are to be found in twenty shops in the metropolis. England has beaten India. The whole of manufactured silks imported from India in 1834, were 496,459 pieces; in 1854, 490,675 pieces; in 1855, 520,456; and 597,752 pieces in 1856; these included bandanas, the printed article, corahs, the plain cloth to be printed here, Tussore cloth, Taffeties, &c. But of these only 56,640 pieces, 73,948, and 108,193 pieces, of all these kinds respectively, found their way into consumption; and it is doubtful if many pieces of the plain goods were not re-exported, having been printed here in a style particularly suited for a eertain market. The importations in these three years, 1854-5-6, were 1,574,886 pieces in the aggregate; but of these 1,221,810 pieces were re-shipped, and 342,702 pieces, or about 21 per cent. of the whole receipt, were used in this country. European manufacturers were, however, the 421 great bugbear to any relaxation of the then prohibitory tariff. The official returns of 1856 exhibit a different result. The quantities taken for home use in that year, were 220,287 lbs. of silks and satins in pieces; 9,555 lbs. gauze and crape for a similar use; and 28,740 pieces of silk and cotton velvets, being a total of 268,122 lbs. of materials suitable for ladies' dresses, gentlemen's waistcoats, &c.; and there were also 442,020 lbs. of ribbons of various descriptions. These ribbons added £175,940, and the other item £74,233 to the revenue. The demand for both of these is to be traced to the superiority of the pattern, and so long as the French have the better taste in fancy articles, so long will there be a preference for the lighter kind of their goods. Another material, which is the foundation of an important branch of English manufactures, is to be found under the denomination of "silk," viz., plush for hats. This in three years, has increased from 144,116 lbs. to 171,004 lbs., paying an amount of duty of £8,541, which raised a total of £262,422, including £3,708 from Indian handkerchiefs, for the Chancellor of the Exchequer, from silk goods. Our manufacturers, however, have not been idle in the meanwhile. They made and sent abroad in the last year, 1,563,475 lbs. of ribbons, stuffs, handkerchiefs, &c., &c. besides goods which were not weighed at shipment of the value of £1,764,539. In this list appear 19,017 dozen pairs stockings, which, at the commencement of the present century, were almost exclusively smuggled from France. But the superiority of British machinery, and the advantage derived from British capital, cannot be more fully exemplified than in thrown and silk yarn. shipments of the former of these were 205,126 lbs. in 1854, and 842,342 lbs. in 1856; of the latter 483,153 lbs. in the first, and 604,220 lbs. in the last year. Taking these two articles the total value of silk manufactures exported in 1856 will be £2,966,938, exclusive of a proportion of £3,536,872 under the head of haberdashery and millinery. In 1828 the whole value of exports of silk goods, was £255,871, which had increased but to £792,648 in 1842. The GEORGE STEPHENSON.* THE romance of life formed by the history of George Stephenson, has a few, and only a very few, parallels in the present generation, in its pecuniary results. In its scientific results it stands, perhaps, alone. Nearly ten years have passed since Mr. Stephenson's death, and men still speak of him as belonging to the present time. 1 James Watt belonged to a preceding generation; and having received at least a fair education, he had not to surmount the initiatory difficulties that beset the path of his successor. Some time since we noticed a biography of Mr. Thorneycroft, an eminent iron-master of Wolverhampton, but he had the aid of a common education in boyhood, * 1 vol. 8vo, pp. 317. John Murray, London, |