arises only from activity. [Mention of works on hygiene here is omitted in this translation.]

[Fatigue defined. It may occur with the whole organism or with a part. The idea that total rest is healthy is a misapprehension. The organism requires alternation of rest and activity, which alternation itself is activity because it is change. Hence, "true strength arises only from activity."]

§ 56. Physical education, as it concerns the repairing, the motor, or the nervous activities, is divided into (1) dietetics, (2) gymnastics, (3) sexual education. In real life these activities are scarcely separable, but for the sake of exposition we must consider them apart. In the regular development of the human being, moreover, the repairing system has a relative precedence to the motor system, and the latter to the sexual maturity. But education can treat of these ideas only with reference to the infant, the child, and the youth.

[Physical education treats of (a) the repairing activity or nutrition, (b) the motor or muscular activity, and (c) the nervous activity, as far as they concern children and youth.

CHAPTER II.

(A.) DIETETICS.

857. DIETETICs is the art of sustaining the normal repair of the organism. Since this organism is, in the concrete, an individual one, the general principles of dietetics must, in their manner of application, vary with the sex, the age, the temperament, the occupation, and the other conditions of the individual. Education as a

science can only go over its general principles, and these can be named briefly. If we attempt to speak of details, we fall easily into triviality. So very important to the whole life of man is the proper care of his physical nature during the first stages of its development, that the science of education must not omit to enumerate the various systems which different people, according to their time, locality, and culture, have made for themselves; many, it is true, embracing some preposterous ideas, but in general never devoid of justification in their time.

[Dietetics defined. Details here are trivial.]

[§§ 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, relating to diet, omitted. The following is a brief summary of the contents: S$ 58, 59, 60, 61, treat of food for infants. § 62, why children need much sleep. § 63 treats of clothing of children.]

64. Cleanliness is a virtue to which children should be accustomed for the sake of their physical well-being, as well as because, in a moral point of view, it is of the greatest significance. Cleanliness will not endure that things shall be deprived of their proper individuality through the elemental chaos. It retains each as distinguished from every other. While it makes necessary to man pure air, cleanliness of surroundings, of clothing, and of his body, it develops in him a sense by which he perceives accurately the particular limits of being in general.

[Cleanliness means a place for everything and everything in its place." To take a thing out of its proper relations is to “deprive it of its proper individuality," and in an "elemental chaos" everything has lost its proper relations to other things, and has no longer any use or fitness in its existence.]

CHAPTER III.

(B.) GYMNASTICS.

§ 65. GYMNASTICS is the art of the normal training of the muscular system. The voluntary muscles, which are regulated by the nerves of the brain, in distinction from the involuntary automatic muscles depending on the spinal cord, while they are the means of man's intercourse with the external world, at the same time react upon the automatic muscles in digestion and sensation. Since the movement of the muscular fibers consists in the alternation of contraction and expansion, it follows that gymnastics must bring about a change of movement which shall both contract and expand the muscles.

[Gymnastics. The voluntary and involuntary muscles distinguished the voluntary muscles form the means of communication with the external world, and also react on the automatic functions of digestion, sensation, etc. Gymnastics seeks to develop the voluntary muscles in a normal manner, and through these indirectly to affect favorably the development of the other bodily systems and processes.]

§ 66. The system of gymnastic exercise of any nation corresponds always to its mode of fighting. So long as this consists in the personal struggle of a hand-to-hand contest, gymnastics will seek to increase as much as possible individual strength and adroitness. As soon as the far-reaching missiles projected from fire-arms become the center of all the operations of war, the individual is lost in a body of men, out of which he emerges only relatively in sharp-shooting, in the charge, in close contests, and in the retreat. Because of this incorporation of the individual in the one great whole, and because

of the resulting unimportance of personal daring, gymnastics can never again be what it was in ancient times. Besides this, the subjectiveness of the modern spirit is too great to allow it to devote so much attention to the care of the body, or so much time to the admiration of its beauty, as was given by the Greeks.

The Turner societies and Turner-halls in Germany belong to the period of subjective enthusiasm of the German student population, and had a political significance. At present, they have been brought back to their proper place as an educational means, and they are of great value, especially in large cities. Among the mountains, and in rural districts, special arrangements for bodily exercise are less necessary, for the matter takes care of itself. The situation and the instinct for play help to foster it. In great cities, however, the houses are often destitute of halls or open places where the children can take exercise in their leisure moments. In these cities, therefore, there must be some gymnastic hall where the sense of fellowship may be developed. Gymnastics are not so essential for girls. In its place, dancing is sufficient, and gymnastic exercise should be employed for them only where there exists any special weakness or deformity, when it may be used as a restorative or preservative. They are not to become Amazons. The boy, on the contrary, needs to acquire the feeling of good-fellowship. It is true that the school develops this in a measure, but not fully and simply, because in school the standing of the boy is determined through his intellectual ambition. The college youth will not take much interest in special gymnastics unless he can gain distinction in it. Running, leaping, climbing, and lifting, are too tame for their more mature spirits. They can take a lively interest only in the exercises which have a warlike character. With the Prussians, and some other German states, gymnastic training is provided for in the military training.

[Gymnastics affected by the national military drill. The ancient tribes and nations found special bodily training indispensable to success in war, and even to national preservation. Gunpowder and improved fire-arms have almost rendered gymnastics obsolete the successful army, other things equal, being the one composed of men thoroughly disciplined in manœuvres, and

possessed individually of tact and versatility necessary to manipulate the destructive fire-arms now used. The Greeks (see §§ 204-216) paid so much attention to pure gymnastics because they worshiped the beautiful as the highest manifestation of the divine, and therefore looked upon their own physical perfection as the highest object of life. The favorite exercises with our students are boating, ball-playing, bicycle-riding, etc., rather than boxing, fencing, wrestling, and "exercises which have a warlike character," as Rosenkranz enumerated them in 1840.] § 67. The fundamental idea of gymnastics must always be that the spirit shall rule over its body and make this an energetic and docile servant of its will. Strength and adroitness must unite and become confident skill. Strength, carried to its extreme, produces the athlete; adroitness, to its extreme, the acrobat. Education must avoid both. All gigantic strength, as well as acrobatic skill, fit only for display, must be discouraged and so too must be the idea of teaching gymnastics with the motive of utility; e. g., that by swimming one may save his life when he falls into the water, etc. Among other things, utility may also be a consequence; but the principle in general must always be the necessity of the spirit of subjecting its bodily organism to the condition of a perfect instrument, so that it may ever find it equal to the execution of its will.

[Gymnastics, therefore, in modern times must aim chiefly at developing the body for the sake of physical strength and endurance, with a view to the demands of useful industry and mental culture on the bodily health and vigor. Health requires harmonious development; the exercises must develop the parts of the body so as not to produce disproportion. The result of gymnastics is to give the mind control over the body as a whole -the will interpenetrates, as it were, the various organs, and by this means the conscious mind can re-enforce the automatic functions of the body; the will-power can to a certain degree even ward off disease.]