perception is still more increased by adding to it the thinking activity which perceives necessary relations. Agassiz looks at a new fish from the Amazon River and sees at once its type and its variations-knows at once the great mass of its properties, functions, faculties, habits, and history, simply by its classification under already known genera, species, and sub-classes. This enables him to distinguish at once its variations from the general type and to see the significance of its peculiarities. In the same manner a botanist (Prof. Gray, for example) glances at a tree as he passes it rapidly, from the car-window. He sees its resemblances and its differences, however, in that rapid glance, because he subsumes it under all that he knows-all that is known, in fact, as the aggregate result of all observations for thousands of years. By recognizing its series, class, sub-class, order, sub-order, tribe, genus, species, and variety, he is instantly in possession of information enough to make a library of books on the subject of that one tree. He saw enough, too, in the rapid glance to inform himself of its individual differences, its particular size, age, shape, and condition, in so far as these were peculiar. Contrast this with the information obtained by the sense-perception of an observer endowed with excellent sight but no knowledge of botany. Science, which is the product of conception and thinking, thus re-enforces sense-perception, and "dialectically" the latter demands for its perfection those higher activities, and, vice versa, thinking and conception, which deal with the universal or the possibility and the process which creates particular individuals, demand sense-perception to take cognizance of those individuals.]

CHAPTER V.

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. (a) Psychology (continued). (1) The Intuitive Epoch.

§ 85. SENSE-PERCEPTION, as the beginning of intellectual culture, is the free grasping of an object immedi

ately present to the mind. Education can do nothing directly toward the performance of this act; it can only assist in making it easy: (1) it can isolate the object of consideration; (2) it can give facility in the transition to another; (3) it can promote the many-sidedness of the interest, by which means the return to a perception already obtained has always a fresh charm.

[Sense-perception (German Anschauung) is called intuition in all the earlier translations of Kant, because the Latin word intueri was suggested by Kant as an equivalent for anschauen. Hence "intuitive epoch" means epoch of sense-perception. Perception can be assisted by isolation of the object to be perceived. The pupil should be trained to look for certain properties and attributes, and to note their peculiarities. The categories under which one may classify these properties and attributes are furnished by reflection. Hence, when one in the so-called "objectlessons" trains the pupil to note in all objects certain constantly recurring predicates, such as color, shape, frangibility, solubility, size, number, taste, smell, etc., he is bringing thought and conception "back into perception" (see previous section) and elévating mere perception into thinking perception. The difference between ordinary perception and scientific perception lies just here: while the former is unsystematic and fragmentary, and does not accumulate or collect and retain data in the form of general ideas, the latter is systematic, exhaustive and cumulative. Thinking gives the system. Hence, the training of perception is the subordination of it to the will, and the introduction of complete systematic habits of activity in place of accidental perception.]

§ 86. There are many things which can not be presented to immediate perception, however desirable it may be. We must then have recourse to a mediated perception, and supply the lack of actual seeing by representations through pictures and models. But here the difficulty presents itself, that there are many objects which we are not able to represent in their true size,

and we must have a reduced scale, whence results a difficulty as to the selection of the best standard. An explanation is then also necessary as a judicious supplement to the picture.

[All perceivable objects should be learned by actual perception so far as is possible. When remoteness in space and time or inaccessibility on account of size prevents this, a good substitute offers itself in the way of pictorial representation. The picture, of course, idealizes much-it magnifies some objects and reduces others, and it never presents all of the features found in nature. But it omits unessential details for the most part, and this fact makes a picture much easier to learn than the real object, although the knowledge is not so practical. The picture is commonly nearer the type or general form of the object than real specimens; the real specimens have much about them that is accidental, and need much comparison to discover what is the normal type. The picture gives this type at once, and hence gives assistance to the pupil-half digests his mental food for him, in fact. Hence the pictorial representation has advantages (it is easy of apprehension because it is a perception reduced to conception), and disadvantages (the pupil does not get the strength that comes from reducing the specimens of nature to their types by his own efforts).]

§ 87. Pictures are extremely valuable aids to instruction when they are correct and characteristic. Correctness must be demanded in these substitutes for natural objects, historical persons, and scenes. Without this correctness, the picture, if not an impediment, is, to say the least, useless.

i. e.,

It is only since the last half of the seventeenth century, since the disappearance of the genuine art of painting, that the picture-book has appeared as an educational means; first of all, coming from miniature-painting. Up to that time, public life was more picturesque with its display of arms, furniture, houses, and churches; and men, from their fondness for constant travel, had their hunger for immediate perception sated. It was only afterward, when, in the excitement of the Thirty Years' War, the arts of sculpture and

painting and Christian and pagan mythology became extinct, that there arose a greater necessity for pictured representations. The Orbis Rerum Sensualium Pictus, which was also to be a janua linguarum reserata, of Amos Comenius, appeared first in 1658, and was reprinted in 1805. Many valuable illustrated books followed. Since that time innumerable illustrated Bibles and histories have appeared, but many of them look only to the pecuniary profit of the author or the publisher. [The remainder of this section, devoted to a criticism of the German illustrated books of the period, is omitted.]

[Accuracy is, above all, demanded in pictorial representations. The picture-book came into use chiefly after the decline of painting. Comenius (1658) gave a great impulse to education by his book, which attempts to convey a knowledge of the world by pictures.]

§ 88. Children have naturally a desire to collect things, and this may be so guided that they shall collect and arrange plants, butterflies, beetles, shells, skeletons, etc., and thus gain exactness and reality in their perception. Especially should they practice drawing, which leads them to form exact images of objects. But drawing, as children practice it, does not have the educational significance of cultivating in them an appreciation of art, but rather that of educating the eye, as this must be exercised in estimating distances, sizes, and colors. It is, moreover, a great gain in many ways, if, through a suitable course of lessons in drawing, the child is advanced to a knowledge of the elementary forms of nature.

That pictures should affect children as works of art is not to be required. They confine themselves at first to distinguishing the outlines and colors, and do not yet appreciate the execution. If the children have access to real works of art, we may safely trust in their power, and quietly await their moral and æsthetic effect. [Notice of a work on drawing omitted.]

[Children should be exercised in classification. They should collect and arrange cabinets for themselves.

This will give

them ability in recognizing the type in the specimen, the general in the particular. Drawing, too, is excellent for the training of sense-perception, if from objects direct, inasmuch as it requires the pupil to omit all that is not characteristic of the object. How far lines suffice to delineate an object, and fix it unmistakably, and what these few lines are, the art of drawing teaches. Characterization must be learned first before any attempt at æsthetic effect. But true works of art must be placed where the child will receive a silent education from them, although no positive instruction is given in them.]

§ 89. In order that looking at pictures shall not degenerate into mere diversion, explanations should accompany them. Only when the thought embodied in the illustrations is pointed out, can they be useful as a means of instruction. Simply looking at them is of as little value toward this end as is water for baptism without the Holy Spirit. Our age inclines at present to the superstition that man is able, by means of simple senseperception, to attain a knowledge of the essence of things, and thereby dispense with the trouble of thinking. Illustrations are the order of the day, and, in the place of enjoyable descriptions, we find inferior pictures. It is in vain to try to get behind things, or to comprehend them, except by thinking.

[Pictorial representation is of little service, unless accompanied by analysis and explanation, Mere gazing upon a picture is like the thoughtless gazing upon real objects—it is not systematic, and does not separate the essential from the accidental, nor exhaust the subject.]

§ 90. The ear as well as the eye must be cultivated/ Music must be considered the first educational means to this end, but it should be music inspired by ethical purity. Hearing is the most internal [i. e., it reveals to us the internal character of objects] of all the senses,