imagination. If these acts have preceded, the fixing of a name, or of a number, in which the content interesting us is, as it were, summed up, is not difficult. When interest and attention animate us, it seems as if we did not need to be at all troubled to remember anything. All the so-called mnemonic helps only serve to make more difficult the act of memory. This act is in itself a double function, consisting of, first, the fixing of the sign, and second, the fixing of the conception subsumed under it. Since the mnemonic technique adds to these one more conception, through whose means the things with which we have to deal are to be fixed, it makes the function of remembering three-fold, and forgets that the connecting link and its relations to the sign and the subsumed conception-wholly arbitrary and highly artificial-must also be remembered. The true aid for memory consists in not helping it at all, but in simply taking up the object into the ideal regions of the mind by the force of the infinite self-determination which mind possesses [that is to say, the true help consists in associating the object with its kindred through ideas of species and genera or classes].

Lists of names, as e. g., of the Roman emperors, of the popes, of the caliphs, of rivers, mountains, authors, cities, etc.; also numbers, as, e. g., the multiplication-table, the melting-points of minerals, the dates of battles, of births and deaths, etc., must be learned without aid. All indirect means only serve to do harm here, and are required as self-discovered devices only in case that interest or attention has become weakened.

[Memory. The German word Gedächtniss is contrasted with the word Erinnerung; the former may be translated "memory," and the latter "recollection "-recollection, the reproduction of the perceived object in its particular existence, and memory the reproduction of it by its general type. With the general type

the mind is able to master the infinite diversity of nature and reduce all to a few classes. Mnemonic artifices are to be eschewed. "Memory is the stage of the dissolution of the conception"; this means that the power of representation becomes less and less, a mere recalling of what has been perceived, and, as the mind strengthens, it passes over into a faculty which calls up universals, or general concepts in the place of particular images. Memory, in this technical sense, deals with words-each word standing for some universal concept. Language is therefore something that can be used by a whole people-its words, standing, as they do, for universals, express for each individual the contents of his observations, no matter how peculiar they may be. Memory, as thus contradistinguished from mere recollection, is therefore synthetic, inasmuch as it constructs or puts together the essential characteristics of the object in the form of a definition and subsumes objects perceived under it. While recollection recalls the exact object which it perceived before, memory recognizes in the object before it its class or species, and thus recalls and adds to the object the sum total of previous experience in regard to this object. (See commentary to § 84 for further discussion of this. The difference between the memory of the scientific man and that of the unscientific is there illustrated.) It must not be understood here that the "definition” implied in the "word" is a conscious one. Most of the words we use have never been defined consciously, that is to say, we have never reflected on the definition; but we carry with us an unconscious definition all the same, and, when we identify or recognize objects before us, we use the unconscious definition, taking notice of the features of the object one after the other, to see whether they correspond to the features which we remember as general characteristics of the class.

How what is symbolic becomes conventional is perhaps the most interesting question in the psychology of early education. The child passes from the symbolical stage to the conventional stage of culture, and enters the stage of "youth" in the technical sense of the word, as here employed. Conventional studies, like the alphabet and orthography, can not be well taken up until the child has reached this conventional epoch of growth. In the old hieroglyphic system, the letter A represented the face of an ox, and was symbolic. Since the Phoenicians transplanted

the alphabet among other peoples, A has been a conventional sign for a particular sound.

Recollection may be cultivated. A magnet will increase its force if a slight increase is made daily to the weight it supports. So the memory of numbers and dates may be indefinitely increased by committing an additional one or two each day to memory, and taking care by frequent reviews that nothing once memorized shall escape. But equal care should be taken not to overburden the power of recollection by undertaking too many new items at a time. Let the student make a special effort with precisely the kind of recollection that he is most deficient in, be it names, dates, shapes, or whatever it be, and he will find that, by persistent practice for a few months, he can bring the special power to the front. The habit of attention to likeness and difference, so that the mind at once takes in the species and differentia involuntarily, is the habit that secures good memory.]

§ 99. The means to be used (and these are based on the nature of memory itself) are, on the one hand, the pronouncing and writing of the names or numbers, and, on the other, repetition; by the former means we gain distinctness and by the latter sureness of memory.

All artificial contrivances for quickening the memory dwindle in comparison with the art of writing, in so far as this is not looked upon as a means of relieving the memory. That a name or a number should be this or that, is for the intelligence a mere result of chance, an entirely meaningless accident to which we have unconditionally to submit ourselves as something not dependent on our wills. The intelligence must be accustomed to put upon itself this constraint. In the sciences, especially in philosophy, our reason helps to derive one thought from another by means of its dependence on it, and we can discover names through this fact of dependence and derivation.

[Repetition and the writing down of names and numbers are the best means for fixing them in the memory.]

CHAPTER VII.

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. (a) Psychology (continued).

(3) The Logical Epoch.

$100. IN representation by means of mental images there is attained a general idea or a notion in so far as the empirical details are referred to a schema, as Kant called it. But the necessity of the connection of the particular details with the general schema is wanting to it. To develop this idea of necessity is the task of the thinking activity, which frees itself from all mental pictures, and with its clearly defined determinations transcends image-concepts. The thinking activity, therefore, is emancipated from dependence on the senses, to a higher degree than the processes of conception and perception. The notion, judgment, and syllogism, develop forms which, as such, have no power of being perceived by the senses. But it does not follow from this that he who thinks can not return out of the thinking activity and carry it with him into the sphere of image-concepts and perception. The true thinking activity deprives itself of no content. The form of abstraction affecting a logical purism which looks down. upon conception and perception as forms of intelligence quite inferior to itself is a pseudo-thinking, a morbid and scholastic error. Education will be the better on its guard against this the more it has led the pupil by the legitimate road of perception and conception to thinking. Memorizing especially is an excellent pre

paratory school for the thinking activity, because it gives practice to the intelligence in exercising itself in abstract ideas.

[In the general images of the faculty of conception, necessity of connection is yet wanting. Thinking, technically so called, discovers necessary relations. The logical distinctions are notions, judgment, syllogism. Within the notion are the ideas of universal, particular and individual (or singular). The thinking activity "returns" to perception and conception, as illustrated in § 84, re-enforcing them. It is important for the teacher to be able to recognize the grades of simple perception from those grades re-enforced by thought as explained in that section. As an example of necessary relations, take the quantitative phases of any thing or event. In every triangle the sum of its three angles is 180°. Every circumference of a round object is equal to the diameter multiplied by 3.14159 +.]

§ 101. The fostering of the sense of truth, from the earliest years up, is the surest way of leading the pupil to gain the power of thinking. The unprejudiced, disinterested yielding to truth, as well as the effort to shun all deception and false seeming, is of the greatest value in strengthening the power of reflection, as this considers nothing of value but the actually existing objective interaction of things and events.

The indulging of an illusion as a pleasing recreation of the intelligence should be allowed, while lying must not be tolerated. Children have a natural inclination for mystifications, for masquerades, for raillery, and for theatrical performances, etc. This inclination to illusion is perfectly normal with them, and should be permitted. The graceful kingdom of art is developed from it, as also the poetry of conversation with its jest and wit. Although this sometimes becomes stereotyped into very prosaic conventional forms of speech, it is more tolerable than the awkward honesty which takes everything in its simple literal sense. And it is easy to discover whether children in such play, in the activity of free joyousness, incline to the side of mischief by their showing a desire of satisfying their selfish interest. Then they must be checked, for in that case the sprightli