unimproved road-surface is clearly shown by the above calculations. In the best condition of the earth road it required 50 teams to move 50 tons; on the improved surface but 17 teams are required to perform a like work, and the labor of the teams formerly required may be more profitably employed at other work. On the earth road in its worst condition it required two teams to move one ton; on the improved surface but one team is required to move three tons.

851. Any calculations made to ascertain the benefits accruing to a community from improved roads must necessarily fall far short of the truth, since no account can be taken of the saving in wear and tear of horses and vehicles, of the saving in time caused by the increased size of the loads, which thus decrease the number of days on which hauling must be done, thus allowing the time to be more profitably employed, or of the enhancement of the value of the land in consequence of the improved roads, or of the social advantages arising from their improvement.

CHAPTER XIX.

MAINTENANCE.-REPAIRING; CLEANSING; WATERING.

852. Maintenance. The maintenance of a roadway is the keeping of it, as nearly as practicable, in the same condition as it was when originally made; the repair of a roadway is the work rendered necessary to bring it up to its original condition after it has become deteriorated by neglect to maintain it. Thus there is a wide distinction between the two operations, and when the comparison of costs is instituted errors are frequently caused by setting the repairs of one road against the maintenance of another or vice versa.

853. Necessity for Maintenance.-No matter how well made a structure may be, or how carefully the materials used have been inspected, the use of it will exhibit defects which it is almost impossible to guard against, such as variableness in the quality of the material and slighting on the part of the workmen. Moreover, every material, whether natural or artificial, is continually undergoing a process of deterioration by the action of the elements; this decay is hastened or retarded in proportion to the means employed and care bestowed to arrest it. The materials employed for pavements are not only subjected to the destroying action of the elements, but also to abrasion and concussion, which by themselves are powerful destroying agents. In view of these facts the continual presence of workmen engaged in repairing pavements must not in all cases be considered as evidence of defective construction or improper materials, but as an honest endeavor by those in charge of the highways to preserve the surface in good travelling condition.

854. The essential requisite to the preservation of a good surface is eternal vigilance on the part of the roadway keepers. If a depression appears in consequence of settlement, defective material, or other causes, it must be at once eliminated; if not, it will be

quickly deepened and enlarged by each succeeding vehicle, and will thus become an obstacle to safe travelling.

855. Good Maintenance comprises:

(1) Constant daily attention to repair the ravages of traffic and the elements. The character and quantity of these repairs will vary with the character of the pavement and the manner of its construction. With granite blocks laid on a concrete foundation they will be the least, with broken stone they will be the greatest; the other materials, as wood, asphalt, and brick, lying between.

(2) Cleansing, i.e., removing the detritus caused by wear, horsedroppings, and other refuse finding its way into the streets. (3) Watering to lay the dust.

856. Systems of Maintenance. Three systems of maintaining pavements are in vogue:

(1) By contract, at a fixed price per square yard per annum for a fixed period. Under this method asphalt pavements are maintained in both the United States and Europe. Wood pavements are also maintained under this system in Europe, but rarely in America. The form of contract under which this system is carried out in Europe is given in Articles 214 and 265. The advantage of this system is that of having some one admittedly responsible for the condition of the pavement. Its defects are (a) the difficulty of determining the exact condition the pavement is in at the expiration of the contract. (b) It is an extremely costly system.

(2) By independent contracts for the labor and materials, the tools and supervision being furnished by the city.

(3) By men in the employment of the city, materials, etc., being purchased in the open market. This is the system adopted by the city of Liverpool, and the excellence of that city's pavements needs no comment.

857. Maintenance of Country Roads.-When a country highway is finished and thrown open to traffic, it cannot be left to take care of itself; if it is, it will soon deteriorate and become bad. It is to the thorough appreciation of this fact that the excellence of the European roads is due. Upon its completion a system of maintenance must be instituted. Three systems are in vogue: (a) By contract with private parties. (b) Personal service by the rural population. (c) By men permanently employed for the purpose by the community.

(a) The contract system is unsatisfactory, from the difficulty of getting a proper observance of the terms of the contract from the contractor or his employers.

In Austria during the last century experiments were made with the letting of the maintenance of the state roads to private parties, which experiments proving unsatisfactory, caused the government to take the work in hand, and it has adhered to this practice up to the present day, with a short interruption in the years 1858-1861, during which time the keeping of the roads was again let by contract, and again gave unsatisfactory results.

(b) The personal-service or labor-tax system is not applicable to the maintenance of improved roads. In fact, it is not applicable to any class of roads; it is unsound in principle, unjust in its operation, wasteful in its practice, and unsatisfactory in its results.

(c) By men permanently employed for the purpose by the community. This system has been adopted by France, Germany, and nearly all European countries. Its advantages are many. The men so employed become familiar with the peculiarities of their sections and with the best way to deal with them, and good men soon learn to take an interest in the road which it is their business to keep in order. "It is in vain to expect the same skill or industry from men employed by the job, or having no interest in the goodness of the road, or in making the most of the means at their disposal."

858. The maintenance or keeping of the road in proper order consists of:

(1) The daily removal of the detritus either in the form of dust or mud, the horse-droppings and other rubbish.

(2) The filling of ruts or depressions.

(3) The cleansing out of the ditches, catch-basins, and water

courses.

(4) Watering the surface in dry weather.

The disintegrating action of the weather and the friction of the traffic produces dust; this dust renders the road heavy for traffic and annoys passengers and horses. If rain falls, the dust is converted into mud. A well-swept road produces no mud after a rain, at least not for several days. However, if the humidity continues, the road-surface becomes at first sticky and finally is covered with mud. Mud makes the tracks of wheels apparent; other vehicles

follow in them, and after a while ruts are formed which injure the road. Thus it is essential that the dust and mud be removed from the road-surface. The dust may be removed by sweeping, the mud by scraping. These sweepings and scrapings should not be left on the sides of the road to be redistributed by the first wind, but should be immediately removed: they might be utilized by the farmers as an adjunct to their manure-pile.

(1) The best time for sweeping is early in the morning before the dew has dried; besides, there is less inconvenience to the traffic at that time.

The removal of dust and mud may be effected either by brooms and hand-scrapers or by mechanical sweepers and scrapers drawn by horses. In the rural districts the former will be most suitable, while in the vicinity of towns the latter will be most economical.

(2) Daily attention must be given to the making of slight repairs such as filling ruts and depressions; for, however well the materials may be laid and rolled, the traffic will search out the places which are weak or have escaped the full pressure of the roller.

(a) All ruts should be at once filled. If there are three parallel, the centre rut should be first filled. The traffic is thus slightly diverted, as a horse will avoid new metal.

(b) Depressions or hollows should be filled at once. The surface of the road should never be allowed to lose its regular section. (c) If the surface of the road where these patches are to be placed is very hard, it must be loosened up with the pick.

(d) Water lodging in a depression should not be let off by digging a trench with the pick-axe to the side of the roadway. The depression should be filled up.

(e) All loose stones should be picked off at once and stored for use in filling hollows. If allowed to remain, they are not only dangerous to horses, but are liable to be crushed or to be forced through the skin of the roadway, thus causing damage.

(3) At all seasons of the year the gutters should be kept free from mud and rubbish of all sorts, and anything that impedes the free discharge of the rain-water from the road must be removed.

The ditches and culverts should be well cleaned out in advance of the spring and fall rains. In northern localities, where snow lies for some time, the outlets of all ditches and culverts should be