19. Pilate's dictator was the servile mob; The multitudes cried with one voice, "Crucify him;" .. They who thus judged were the masters of the judge. 20. For if, when we were enemies, we were reconciled to God by the death of his Son; much more, being reconciled, we shall be saved by his life.-Rom. v, 10. 21. It were better to have no opinion of God at all than such an opinion as is unworthy of him; for the one is unbelief, the other is contumely; and certainly superstition is the reproach of the Deity.-Bacon, Essay xvii. IV. COMPOUND AND DISGUISED FORMS. § 1. The reasonings thus far considered are simple. Under the present topic are to be examined a few varieties of compound or complex and disguised reasonings. The varieties are endless, and only some of the most important and illustrative can be here described. As preparatory to this, however, it is needful to give an account of certain irregularities which obtain in the ordinary statement of reasoning. The deviation of propositions from strict logical form gives rise to a very common kind of irregularity. Simple propositions often take irregular forms; e. g., "It rains." Very common are inversions. Complex propositions are continually occurring in which there is a displacement of a clause. E. g., "In these sentences themselves the cases are exemplified which they state." The use of such propositions.conceals or complicates the logical forms; but this may be more than compensated by the heightened rhetorical effect. A cause of still greater intricacy is the use of compound propositions. This we shall consider more fully in the sequel. The order of the propositions being unessential, it is varied at will. E. g., "The fact that I defended him is proof that I held him innocent; for who would defend the guilty?" Here the major premise is implied by the question, and is stated after the conclusion. It is quite usual to state the conclusion first, followed by an illative, as for, since, because, is proved by, etc. E. g., "Not every passion is blameworthy; for anger is a passion, and there is a righteous anger." Except in treatises on Logic, it is seldom that a formal syllogism occurs. In ordinary conversation, or even in avowed argumentation, its presence is apt to be an offence to the hearer or reader. He naturally expects to have some small share in the thinking; whereas the syllogism leaves him none, and charges him with a minimum of intelligence. The intelligent mind often, on the barest suggestion, catches a thought, and sweeps through a train of reasoning with marvellous rapidity and accuracy. Hence the more cultivated the hearer, the less need is there of elaborate statement. A hint, perhaps, is all that is required for cogent conviction; whence the old saw "A word to the wise is sufficient." Besides, a logically formal statement would render the expression of almost any thought intolerably prolix. Brief expression is not only more pleasing and forcible, but often more clear. Unnecessary words do not elucidate, but obscure, thought. It is best, then, to use no more than are needful to convey the thought clearly and distinctly. For these reasons it is customary greatly to abbreviate expression. Essential propositions, such as are obvious, are elided; others are compounded or condensed in various ways, so that they rarely state the thoughts entire, nor, indeed, according to their actual order. The Enthymeme is the usual form of brief statement; and since reasonings so frequently appear in this guise, we will devote the rest of this prefatory section to its consideration. It is customary, then, to abridge syllogisms; and since, in that case, some part of the reasoning is in the mind only, such statement is called an Enthymeme (év Ovu), which is thus defined: An incomplete syllogism, one or two judgments being unexpressed.' We may, then, distinguish four orders of enthymemes, viz. : 1st. The major premise being unexpressed. E. g., Sirius is a fixed star; therefore it is self-luminous. 2d. The minor unexpressed. E. g., Prayers are often sinful; for whatsoever is not of faith is sin. 3d. The conclusion unexpressed. E. g., Enoch pleased God; but without faith it is impossible to please him (=whoever pleases God has faith). 4th. Only one proposition expressed. E. g., if we see on a tombstone "The memory of the just is blessed," the implied syllogism is sufficiently manifest. This form often occurs in the use of texts, proverbs, pithy sayings, and in witticisms. If some one, seeing me sorely vexed, should say, "The way of transgressors is hard," I am indignant, for the implied syllogism concludes me a transgressor, yet falsely, since it has an undistributed middle. Falstaff, when running from the battle-field, says, "The better part of valor is discretion," which also is a major premise. In the same scene he exclaims, in reply to Prince Hal, "Lord, Lord, how this world is given to lying!" -another major premise conveying what we call "an insinuation," 1 This, though an ancient view and generally accepted in Logic, is not the enthymeme of Aristotle. With him the enthymeme is a reasoning of a peculiar matter-from likelihoods and signs, ov\\oyioμòg ež ɛikótwv nonμeiwv. See Anal. Prior. ii, 27; Rhet. i, 2; also Hamilton's Logic, Lect. xx; Discussions, p. 153 sq. (Am. ed.); and Mansel's Aldrich, Appendix, note F. COMPOUND AND DISGUISED FORMS. 2 UNIVE 185 the implied conclusion. The answer to a question is often indirect, i. e., a premise from which the doubtful proposition follows,—a very satisfactory mode of answer, since it furnishes also the ground of the opinion. E. g., "Is smuggling a crime?" Ans., "Whatever violates the rights of society is crime." Again, when the disciples of John asked our Lord, "Art thou he that should come?" he replied indirectly by giving them a minor premise, not, however, in words, but in acts. In that same hour he performed many miracles, and simply called their attention to them. The message to Pilate from his wife furnishes an instance of a single word, "just," suggesting a major premise, while the conclusion is stated in the form of an exhortation: "Have thou nothing to do with that just man.” The succeeding sentence conveyed a hint of arguments for the proof of each of the premises on which that conclusion rested. A minor premise may stand alone. Paul closed his speech before Festus with, "I appeal unto Cæsar." The major to this minor is, "Every Roman citizen appealing unto Cæsar is entitled to certain immunities." One of the propositions thus standing alone Aristotle calls an enthymematic sentence, and quotes the following as an example: 'A0áratov ὄργην μὴ φύλαττε, θνητὸς ὤν. This may be rendered, “Ο mortal, cherish not immortal hate." But the participial phrase, more strictly rendered, is "Being mortal," and this constitutes a minor to the remainder, which is the conclusion. So it seems, in the common logical view, to be rather an enthymeme of the first kind. 66 5 The major premise is omitted more frequently than any of the other propositions, because it contains commonly a general rule, readily understood and fully admitted; whereas the minor premise is quite commonly a question of fact which needs to be stated and esE. g., tablished in order to be subsumed. A certain celestial body exhibits a proper motion among the stars, therefore it is a member of the solar system." The famous speech of Antony over the body of Cæsar consists of a series of enthymemes, the conclusions being only suggested.' This is high art before an audience whose favor is doubtful. When we permit the hearers to draw the conclusion, they then feel the argument to be somewhat their own, a feeling often more convincing than the logic. 2 Hen. IV, act v, sc. 4. * Matt. xxvii, 19. • Rhet. ii, xxi, 6. Luke vii, 18-22. • Acts xxv, 11. 7 Julius Caesar, act iii, sc. 2. § 2. An Epichirema, or reason-rendering syllogism, is one that has attached to either premise, or to both, a supporting reason. That is to say, it is a syllogism having for a premise the conclusion of an enthymeme. This enthymeme may, of course, be expanded into a syllogism. A syllogism whose premise is the conclusion of another is called an "episyllogism." One whose conclusion is the premise of another is called a "prosyllogism." E. g.: Episyllogism. Vice is odious; Avarice is a vice; for it enslaves;= .. Avarice is odious. { Prosyllogism. .. Avarice is a vice. The propriety of thus, in the progress of an argument, offering some reason or reasons in support of its doubtful propositions is apparent. By so doing we avoid the necessity of returning over the same ground; and by clearing doubts as we go along, we are not so likely to excite in the hearer the disgust that comes of suspense. The oration of Cicero pro Milone, though not formally an epichirema, may be viewed as one on an extended scale, and an analysis of it stated thus: It is lawful to slay one who lies in wait for us; for this is according to natural law; moreover, the laws of all other nations permit it; and, in addition, we have many precedents wherein our own law has justified it. Clodius did lie in wait for Milo; for the known hostility of Clodius renders it probable; again, his equipment of deadly weapons indicates such a design; and, finally, the known murderous character of his attendants also evinces this purpose. Therefore, It was lawful for Milo to slay Clodius. It is more common for the whole effort of an advocate to be directed to the establishment of the minor premise, and long speeches have often no other object. This suggests that the arrangement of our criminal courts corresponds to, or rather presents the parts of, a syllogism. The judge expounds the law, which is the major premise in the case, and, being fully established, requires no proof. The prosecutor endeavors to prove the minor premise, that "The accused is guilty," which the jury decides. If "Not guilty," no conclusion follows. But if "Guilty," the minor is established. Now the judge, |