25. Riches are for spending, and spending for honor and good actions; therefore extraordinary expense must be limited by the worth of the occasion.-Bacon, Essay xxviii.

26. That defalcation is fraud, and therefore a crime, no one will deny, and neither this nor any other crime should go unpunished. But no one who acts with good intent should be punished. Now, all generous conduct is of this character, and it is generous to credit freely. But many failures in business are the consequence of free credit; so that not every one who fails is a defaulter.

Analyze the following arguments, stating the results either as simple syllogisms or as sorites:

27. No agent more effectually imitates the natural action of the nerves in exciting the contractility of the muscles than electricity transmitted along their trunks; and it has hence been supposed by some philosophers that electricity is the real agent by which the nerves act on the muscles. But there are many objections to such a view; and this very important one among the rest, that electricity may be transmitted along a nervous trunk which has been compressed by a string tied tightly round it, while the passage of ordinary nervous power is as completely checked by this process as if the nerve had been divided.-Carpenter's Physiology.

28. We are not inclined to attach much practical value to that analysis of the inductive method which Bacon has given us in the second book of the Novum Organum. It is, indeed, an elaborate and correct analysis. But it is an analysis of that which we are all doing from morning till night, and which we continue to do even in our dreams.-Macaulay.

29. Our intellectual part being common, the reason, also, in respect of which we are rational beings, is common. This being so, common also is the reason which commands us what to do, and what not to do; this being so, there is a common law also; hence we are all fellow-citizens; and hence members of the same political community; and therefore the world is in a manner a state.-Marcus Antoninus.

30. The general object which all laws have, or ought to have, in common is to augment the total happiness of the community; and, therefore, to exclude, as far as may be, everything that tends to

subtract from that happiness; in other words, to exclude mischief. But all punishment is mischief; all punishment is in itself an evil. Upon the principle of utility, if punishment ought at all to be admitted, it ought only to be admitted in so far as it promises to exclude some greater evil.-Jeremy Bentham. 31. Because the greatest part of men are such as prefer their own private good before all things, even that good which is sensual. before whatsoever is most divine; and for that the labor of doing good, together with the pleasure arising from the contrary, doth make men for the most part slower to the one and proner to the other than that duty prescribed them by law can prevail sufficiently with them; therefore unto laws that men do make for the benefit of men it hath seemed always needful to add rewards, which may more allure unto good than any hardness deterreth from it, and punishments, which may more deter from evil than any sweetness thereto allureth.-Hooker, Eccl. Pol., bk. I, x, 6.

32. How did the barbarians reason in Acts xxviii, 3–6 ?

33. Prove syllogistically that O cannot be a premise in Fig. 1; that it cannot be the major in Fig. 2, nor the minor in Fig. 3. Also prove that in Fig. 2 the conclusion must be negative. Also that in Fig. 3 the conclusion must be particular.

Write out the syllogisms involved in the following irregular and compound forms, supplying any inference that may be lacking:

34. The French once more are endeavoring to establish a republic. A republic is a representative government;

.. The French once more are endeavoring to establish a representative government.

35. The value of money is merely a purchasing power;

Interest on money is only a reward of abstinence;

.. Interest on money is not the value of money.

36. Now no chastening for the present seemeth to be joyous, but grievous; nevertheless afterwards it yieldeth the peaceable fruit

of righteousness unto them which are exercised thereby.Heb. xii, 11.

37. I give nothing, solely because I have nothing to give.

38. None are happy but the virtuous;

There are many rich men who are not virtuous;

.. There are rich men who are not happy.

39. Whoever says, I love God, and hateth his brother, is a liar; for he that loveth not his brother whom he hath seen, how shall he love God whom he hath not seen?

40. They are out of the reach of their enemies who cannot be robbed

of what they love;

He cannot be robbed of what he loves who loves God alone; .. They who love God alone are out of the reach of their enemies. 41. Every good pastor is ready to give his life for his sheep;

Now pastors in the present day who are ready to give their lives for their sheep are rare;

There are in the present day scarcely any good pastors.

42. The Gospel promises salvation to the faithful;

Many whom the world condemns are faithful;

.. The Gospel promises salvation to many whom the world condemns. 43. Every one desires happiness; but virtue (alone) is happiness; hence every one desires virtue.-Arist. Eth., bk. iii.

44. Christianity obligates servants to obey their masters in those things only which are not contrary to the law of God;

But unlawful traffic is contrary to the law of God;

Therefore it does not obligate them to serve in an unlawful business, but forbids them so to do.

45. Only they who are not conscious of guilt are not subject to fear; thence it is that conscious hypocrites are always shy and timid, while the innocent are unsuspecting and self-possessed.

46. Gladstone, Disraeli, and Lord Derby are eminent statesmen; But they are also eminent authors;

.. In some cases literary success is not inconsistent with statesmanship. 47. (The commandment to sacrifice is greater than all others save one ;) To love is more than sacrifice;

..To love God is the greatest commandment.-See Mark xii, 28–34. 48. No man is to be punished for the crime of another (Nemo punitur pro alieno delicto);-Legal maxim.

Nearly all of our miseries are entailed on us by the crimes of others; .. Few, if any, of our miseries are punishments.

49. A true philosopher places his chief happiness in moral and intellectual excellence;

But there is no excellence without activity;

A true philosopher places his chief happiness in moral and intellectual activity.

50. Put Cicero's episyllogism (§ 2) in form, and name the mood.

What names may be given to the following reasonings?

51. From a given point in a line only one perpendicular can be drawn.

For if a second could be drawn, the angle which it would make with the given line would be a right angle by definition, and hence equal to that formed on the same side by the first perpendicular; for all right angles are equal. But one of these angles would be a part of the other, hence a part would be equal to the whole, which is impossible.

52. Those used by Demetrius in Acts xix, 23-27; and by the townclerk in vers. 35-41.

53. Those used by our Lord in Luke xiii, 15-16; and in John

X, 34-36.

54. Those used by Paul in Rom. v, 7-10.

55. That used by Eliphaz in Job iv, 17-19.

V. CONDITIONALS.

§ 1. Thus far only categorical forms have been considered. The common logical doctrine respecting conditional forms is now to be stated. Subsequently it may be inquired whether this doctrine needs modification, and to what extent.

A categorical judgment predicates absolutely. A conditional judg ment affirms relatively to some prerequisite which constitutes a condition. Its forms are primarily distinguished according as the condition is expressed by means of an antecedent clause, or implied in a disjunction, or both. Thus:

Judgments

Categorical..

Conditional

...e. g., S is P, and S is not P.
Conjunctive; e. g., If A is B, C is D.
Disjunctive; e. g., C is either D or non-D.
Dilemmatic; e. g., If A is B, C is either D or non-D.

By Boethius "conditional" (con-dare, to put together) is used as synonymous with "hypothetical" (VTо-Tibérα, to place under), and this, having been usual with most logicians after him, is adopted here. Each of the three forms of conditionals, then, is also called generically a hypothetical. The word "supposition" (sub-ponere) is the Latin congener of "hypothesis," and synonymous with it. The dilemmatic proposition, because of its compound character, is also called the conjunctivo-disjunctive proposition.'

§ 2. A conjunctive hypothetical involves two clauses, one of which, expressing the condition, is regarded as the subordinate member, and is called the antecedent, the reason, the protasis (po-Tεiver, to stretch before). The other, expressing the conditioned, is regarded as the principal clause or member, and is called the consequent, the apodosis (amodidórai, to give back). Usually and formally the antecedent is written first, but inversions are quite common.

Hamilton uses "hypothetical" specifically, as synonymous with "conjunctive." Hence he terms the dilemmatic a hypothetico-disjunctive proposition. See Logic, p. 167. Whately, and, indeed, except Mansel, all the Oxford logicians, also Bain and others, use "hypothetical" as generic, and "conditional" as specific.