the lead, with half a dozen on deck for general purposes, and the ship can go to sea with the rest of the crew in their hammocks. The simplicity of this maneuver may, perhaps, be cited to show the advantage steam has over seamanship, but in the case of the sailing vessel the entire crew, officers, seamen, and boys, must be on deck at their posts of duty and be keenly alive to all that is going on, quick to comprehend, and full of life to obey orders with alacrity. There is a spirit of ani. mation here which is never seen in a steam-ship of war, the difference between a well man and a paralytic, for while in the practice-ship there is a soul beaming from the eyes of every one on board, the men and boys in a steam vessel of war look on with apathy and idleness at machine work in which they have no part, and which excites no enthusiasm.

Although the service performed in our practice-ships, which sail to the coasts of Europe and through the West Indies, is not exactly that which is performed in the modern ship of war denuded of sail power, yet the qualities developed by this service are of the utmost value to the Navy on board the latest cruisers. The officer who can properly handle one of the apprentice ships can safely be trusted with the deck of the largest commerce destroyer. To apprentice boys who have been trained in sailing ships the work of a steamer is mere child's play.

There is not an officer in the Navy who has served on board the training ships of war that does not congratulate himself on the experience he has gained, such experience as could be obtained nowhere else, and, although the original intention of establishing this little squadron was for the purpose of training boys, yet it has the double effect of serving as a school for officers, and it goes without saying that in the years to come, the officers who have received this training will make the best commanders of steamships.

The sailing ship of war has no rival as a school of instruction. It is the school that has made the sailors of years gone by proverbial for strength, activity, readiness of resource, adaptability to circumstances, patience under severe trial, and contempt of danger. These are the qualities absolutely necessary in a true sailor, which will be as essential in the future as heretofore in any class of vessel that may be used in the Navy.

What was it that gave the volunteer officers in our civil war such value but the early training they received on board sailing vessels ? That training produced as fine a body of men as ever went to sea. We could not have done without them any more than we can do without them in future wars, where they will prove a powerful factor. Notwithstanding our training squadron has stood the test of time, is without doubt the best of the kiud afloat-although on a small scale-and has received the approval of some of the oldest and most distinguished officers, who have spent many years in the study and practice of the apprentice system, it is now proposed to abolish the time-honored training ships and put the whole system under steam.

It has taken years to build up the apprentice system on its present plan. So far it has been properly cared for, and the Navy is beginning to reap the benefit of it. The greatest demand in the service is for seaman-gunners, and the estimation in which that class of men is held proves conclusively not only the value of the plan hitherto pursued, but that it is necessary to consider carefully before making changes that may mar if they do not destroy the service. We can not afford to surrender the high character for practical seamanship enjoyed by our Navy from the time of Paul Jones to the present day. If officers of the Navy

do not try to maintain that character for the service, who will? A steambark is, no doubt, a thing to produce lazy boys and hybrid seamen-at least it will not contribute to that high character for activity aloft, coolness in time of danger, determination to overcome obstacles, and knowledge of seamanship which has so distinguished American seamen from the time of the Revolutionary war.

Seamen can only be made by battling with the elements. In the war of 1812, when our Navy did such brilliant service against the most powerful of navies, it was because we could draw upon the best sailors in the world, our Eastern fishermen, whose lives were spent upon the ocean, where dangers were encountered far greater than those to be met with in battle. We secured for our Navy men with hearts that were repelled by no danger, who grappled with the canvas in the darkest nights and heaviest weather, as fearless as the storm-bird which shrieked around them amid the terrors of the gale. They encountered waves mountain high and had no steam to help them battle with the enemy. It was their strength and skill that enabled them to overcome the elements, and in that school of seamanship were found men who could not only manage sails and masts but were the best gunners of their time. I doubt if, with all our modern science, we have better gunners at this day. Their seamanship was not imbibed on board steam-ships, but on the decks of sailing vessels, where these gallant spirits, laughing danger to scorn, became under good training the finest sailors in the world. I regret to say that the grand body of seamen who once made our ships of war models exists no longer, and the only chance we have of keeping up the prestige which should animate the service is to retain the sailing apprentice ships, which will at least furnish leading men for petty officers in the Navy.

TORPEDOES.

Since 1865 the naval powers of the world, with the exception of the United States, have been assiduously employed in attempts to perfect the torpedo. Many of the contrivances are very ingenious, illustrating novel applications of well-known principles, and some of them have been brought to great excellence. No doubt a combination of the good qualities of the numerous torpedoes in existence would lead to some very perfect device.

The principle on which the majority of these weapons is constructed is that of the "fish" torpedo. The Whitehead, constructed on this principle, maintains a high reputation, although some other inventions seem to me to possess all the good qualities of the Whitehead, with greater power. Just at present there is a halt in the opinions of those who have advocated the fish-shaped torpedo, owing to the adoption in the British and French navies of heavy steel nets for the purpose of warding off attacks from this weapon.

Within the past year important experiments have been made in England against the iron ship Resistance, to test the efficiency of net protection and the destructive effect of gun cotton exploded in contact with the unprotected iron hull. The result was altogether in favor of the net, which, although receiving some damage, resisted every attempt made with mobile torpedoes to come in actual collision with the ship's side or bottom. The Resistance was anchored at the time, the experiments were made without any drawbacks to the attacking force, and it was clearly shown that any danger to the hull of a ship from the torpedoes now in use could be prevented by double nets, one 10 feet inside the other. Although it would, no doubt, be cumbersome to manipulate two or three

nets instead of one, in time of war every precaution should be taken to protect vessels against these missiles.

For some years I have entertained doubts as to the efficiency of the Whitehead and other fish torpedoes. In these doubts I am partly confirmed by the experiments made on the Resistance, directed at the hull without any nets. These experiments showed that the Whitehead mobile torpedo is not as destructive an agent against the side of a stronglybuilt ship as was anticipated, when the ship is struck 10 feet below the water line. It appeared that although a ship of war might be seriously damaged, she would not probably be obliged to retire from action. It is possible that in a ship built with a double hull from the water-line downwards 12 feet, with a space of 2 feet between the skins to be filled with water when going into action, would afford a barrier that would prevent the ordinary Whitehead torpedo from seriously disabling the vessel. Certainly if the above was combined with the double steel net the vessel of war could be made practically secure against mobile torpedo attacks. In the case to which I have alluded it does not appear that the ship was given any advantage. She was strongly constructed, but not so strong as vessels will probably be built in the future, to resist such attacks. The Resistance was at anchor and those sending off torpedoes could take their time and see that the aiming was effectual. The result went to snow that the destructive power of the fish torpedo has been overestimated; against two nets it would be likely to do but little harm, against three it would be comparatively inoffensive. This is something that should be thoroughly known, as it will give officers greater confidence in their ships, while their crews will not be so apt to become demoralized when mobile torpedoes are used against them.

The doubts I have long entertained regarding the efficiency of mobile torpedoes against strong ships protected with nets have not arisen from any experiments I have myself witnessed, but from the accounts I have read. I place great faith in the opinion of the late Hobart Pasha, the gallant commander-in-chief of the Turkish navy, who had an excellent opportunity to witness in actual warfare practice with the Whitehead, and he asserts that it effected nothing.

The torpedo, no doubt, can be made a powerful adjunct to other naval appliances, but as matters now stand the mobile torpedo would be comparatively useless against heavily armored ships with power guns, which would hold their own, notwithstanding they might be hampered with nets enough to keep out a whale torpedo. Ships might have to pause for a while before torpedoes planted on the bottom, but the stoppage would only be temporary, enabling the inhabitants of sea-board cities to move inland with their portable effects. Great ships with great guns will command the situation, and, having once effected an entrance into the harbor, can, by aid of their electric lights, send a party of divers to the bottom and cut the wires connecting submerged mines. These are at present the only torpedoes to be feared as very dangerous, and these become less formidable after having remained for some time under water.

In the various trials made with torpedoes of the Whitehead character it has been shown that they can be deflected from their course under many circumstances that are apt to exist in actual service, and that target practice is not so accurate as it should be. One would suppose that a fish torpedo sent off below the surface, with nothing but water pressure to contend against, would go straight to the mark, but this is shown not to be the case in practice, even when the machine has been directed against one of the largest ships of the British navy.

In February, 1887, an experiment was made with the Whitehead torpedo by Her Britannic Majesty's ship Polyphemus, a torpedo-ram, 250 feet between perpendiculars, but not showing much extent of surface above water. While running at a speed of 18 knots the Polyphemus fired a number of torpedoes, which were badly scored and broken on ejection from the vessel's tubes. They also deflected so as to run aft parallel with the ship, thus endangering the propellers. This does not speak well for the efficiency of torpedoes fired from a vessel under high speed, although experiments under low speed proved more satisfactory. Low speed is not, however, a condition to be sought for in battle, high speed under such circumstances being most desirable.

In July, 1886, experiments were tried with the Polyphemus while she was advancing, bows on, towards a vessel securely moored. Under these circumstances not one of three torpedoes struck the Polyphemus; their direction was wild, and the question of how they became deflected could not be settled. Three more torpedoes were then fired at the Polyphemus while she was passing at a distance of 200 yards with a speed of 16 knots; one of them passed astern, one passed ahead, and only one struck the vessel.

In whatever manner. these missiles have been used in actual service, it has been shown that they have been deflected by churning water, which is so serious a disadvantage that it would not be wise to depend on the Whitehead to the exclusion of other devices. Judging from the different experiments, nets can be made to protect a ship against any torpedo constructed on the principle of the Whitehead, which is the best of its kind.

Although in time of battle nets may seriously diminish the efficiency of a ship of war, yet they seem to insure safety against the attacks of mobile torpedoes. No doubt there will hereafter be such improvements in the manipulation and construction of nets that they can be let down and rolled up with a facility that will relieve ships of war of the drag on their movements which they at present cause.

Owing to the introduction of steel nets for the protection of ships of war against torpedoes, new devices must be adopted to dispose of the nets before the ordinary fish torpedo can be effectively used, for it is evident that a vessel properly provided with nets could not be successfully assailed by the smaller torpedo-boats now in use, and the latter may be considered practically worthless. This is the conclusion arrived at in England and France, where large torpedo vessels are building, which can also be used as rams.

The Condor is one of four vessels of the same type possessed by the French navy, the others being the Epervier, the Faucon, and the Vautour. They are fast torpedo cruisers of mediura tonnage, designed at once to combat torpedo vessels and iron-clads of larger size. The Condor carries five 10-centimeter cannon and six rapid-firing guns, is provided with five torpedo tubes, and can easily make 18 knots an hour. To the example of the Condor is said to be due the creation of the new Scout class of the British navy. This is a type of torpedo vessels of which a heavy iron-clad might well stand in fear. Fitted with appliances for lifting or tearing nets they would be dangerous opponents. The French have their torpedo cruisers of 1,280 tons; torpedo dispatch boats of 360 tons; sea-going torpedo boats; coast-guard torpedo boats, and picket torpedo boats, but the Condor type is the one which will probably be most successful and to which can be applied the power and mechanical devices for destroying steel nets.

The English have under construction nine sea-going torpedo vessels from 2,640 tons down to 1,600 tons displacement. All will be fine vessels,

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very fast, with large torpedo accommodations, but they are defective for want of appliances for tearing away or lifting steel nets so that torpedoes can pass under them. Every vessel with a displacement of 1,600 tons can easily carry apparatus for lifting or destroying nets while at the same time firing their torpedo under water against an enemy's hull. Several of the powers of Europe having entered into the race for naval supremacy, they can not afford to stop, but must go ahead. The net was a good device, but it can be destroyed by vessels that will grapple with the enemy and run the risk of the fire of his great guns. To the ram and torpedo vessel of any size will be attached the net destroyer. "Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof." The next thing will be for inventors to go to work in order to counteract the effect of the net destroyer.

One of the best appliances I have seen for overcoming the resistance of the net around a ship of war is the torpedo-ram devised by General H. Berdan, formerly of the U. S. Army. General Berdan's design is ingenious and well worthy consideration. His proposed vessel is a ram and torpedo-boat of 1,600 tons displacement, equipped with two long, adjustable arms near the bow, one on each side. When at rest these arms lie snugly under the overhang, concealed abaft the center of rotation, where they can be charged with torpedoes. The arms have a positive motion, are controlled by powerful machinery, swing under and lift a net, discharge the torpedoes on contact very near the center line, and throw the gases up through the ship. This vessel has many excellent features and besides her own special facilities can be fitted with any other apparatus.

I am a strenuous advocate of the Ericsson torpedo vessel, firing a shell from a gun placed near the keel. Such a vessel fitted also with the Berdan apparatus would be the nearest approach to a perfect torpedo-boat that has yet been thought of. A vessel so constructed could grapple with an enemy-the only way in which a torpedo vessel is likely to be effective. The grappling process is certain, and the only cases where ships have been successfully blown up, except by submarine. mines, is where the attacking party has gone alongside the enemy and applied the torpedo directly to the side or bottom.

Our country more than any other stands in need of torpedo vessels of from 1,000 to 2,600 tons displacement until we can get our new Navy fairly started. This class of vessels could be built much more rapidly than the cruiser or armor-clad, their batteries to be not larger than 6inch rifles and fitted with machine and rapid-firing guns. Hulls on the plan of the Polyphemus would be good ones with which to begin.

I do not refer to vessels firing any other than submerged torpedoes. Projectiles discharged at an elevation with the expectation of securing the qualities of torpedoes, or made to descend on the decks of moving ships will prove failures. Vessels firing shells either direct or elevated should not be considered in the torpedo list.

There is some consolation for those who have spent much time in working out the mobile torpedo problem. Their torpedo-boats may yet be available as ram-torpedo-net destroyers, clearing the way for a more efficient use of the mobile torpedo. So many naval officers have embarked in the study of the torpedo system that in order to make useful that on which they have expended so much time and thought they will be obliged to fall back on the ram-torpedo-net destroyer, a vessel combining three qualities in one.

Besides the torpedo boats enumerated in the British navy list for 1885, there have been fifty-four of the first class constructed, called the