its power to give increased enjoyment and fuller understanding of life. Too often liberal education has been pictured by high school pupils as a means of social preferment, a polite endowment, largely remote from the vital interests of life.

Choice of Kind of Higher Education. It is important that the high school should give adequate information regarding the many different kinds of higher education. Ordinarily this is not done, and many pupils do not go to a higher institution because they have not heard of the kind of education that they think would meet their needs.

The variety of higher institutions is continually increasing and now includes colleges of agriculture, architecture, commerce, dentistry, education, engineering, fine arts, forestry, journalism, law, liberal arts, and medicine. There are also trade-schools, normal schools, business schools, and schools for nurses. Colleges for women are offering secretarial and home economics courses. There are also graduate professional schools for which a college course is a prerequisite.

Choice of Particular Institution.-Among institutions offering the same type of education there are important differences that will increase or diminish their value to the individual pupil. The teacher or principal who is intimately acquainted with the pupil in all his relations can often give guidance of the utmost value, but there are so many factors to be taken into consideration that the teacher must exercise great caution. It is generally better to give too little rather than too much advice. On the other hand, all information available should be placed at the disposal of the pupil so that his choice may be based upon the fullest possible knowledge. Such facts

as the following regarding particular institutions should be ascertained and freely supplied:

(1) Entrance requirements.

(2) Standards of work required after admission.
(3) Attention paid to physical development.

(4) Healthful climate.

(5) Opportunities for wholesome recreation.
(6) Democratic spirit.

(7) Civic and social ideals.

(8) Minimum and average expenses.

(9) Opportunities for partial and entire self-support, together with the exact nature of such opportunities.

(10) In case of a vocational or professional institution, success of graduates in securing remunerative employment.

In addition to such facts as the above, much depends upon the attention given by institutions to the welfare and progress of individual students. While the boy should be impressed with his own responsibility, nevertheless certain institutions have remarkable success in looking after individual needs, especially in matters of both scholarship and morals.1

1As an illustration of the administrative relationship of the high school, see the Appendix.-Editor.

Yes__ No_ Maybe

CHAPTER VII

THE RELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO THE
INDUSTRIAL LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY

FRANK TRACY CARLTON, PH.D.

PROFESSOR OF ECONOMICS AND HISTORY, ALBION COLLEGE

Early High School Education Was Vocational in Character. The first American public high school, established in Boston in 1821, was intended to be a preparatory school for Harvard College; and, at this time, Harvard was almost exclusively a training-school for ministers. This and other early high schools were founded to serve practical ends; they were vocational schools. The one curriculum was definitely prescribed. By the middle of last century the student who did not wish to go to college and obtain professional training began insistently to demand attention. The line of least resistance was followed. New subjects were added to the programme of prescribed studies and advanced to a position of equal rank with languages and mathematics. At last the curriculum became top-heavy, misshapen, and burdensome. The next plan, perforce, adopted was that of offering separate curriculums, the so-called "classical," "modern language," "scientific" courses. The student was allowed to elect one of these. Finally, in the eighties, came the organization in the large cities of separate high schools, such as classical, manual training, and commercial.

Among the first concessions granted in response to the scientific and industrial progress of the century was the introduction into the old curriculum of physics and chemistry. But the most revolutionary step was taken when manual training and laboratory work was introduced into the high school curriculum. The manual training movement offered incontrovertible evidence of a new industrial situation. It became evident that the high school was no longer to be merely a preparatory trainingschool for certain of the so-called learned professions. In spite of bitter opposition, the advocates of manual training persisted; they were the pioneers of a new epoch in secondary education. In 1880 the first American manual training school was opened in Saint Louis. Three years later manual training was introduced into the public schools of Boston. The Scott Manual Training School of Toledo and the Chicago Manual Training School were opened in 1884. Baltimore also introduced manual training in 1884. One year later Philadelphia opened her first manual training school.

Haphazard Changes in the High School Curriculum. Like the changes in the high school curriculum which preceded its introduction, manual training was added in a haphazard fashion. It was hastily stuck on to an already pieced-together curriculum in spite of ridicule and an appeal to tradition. The most beneficial result of the manual training movement is not the introduction of hand-work into the high school, but the impulse given to a scientific study of educational ideals, values, and methods. Since manual training was first introduced into the high school instead of the elementary grades, it is reasonable to infer that the vocational or utilitarian value of manual training was not minimized

by its leading advocates. Later the pedagogical value of hand-work was stressed until, in the words of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, manual training "has been severed from real life as completely as have other school activities." Manual training in our public schools to-day is too often "abstract, isolated, impractical, and unsocial in character." And now the insistent demand is again being made for up-to-date industrial or vocational training in the high school. This demand is not merely an irrational yearning after a new method or for a change. It rests upon a firm foundation; it is due to the growing need of adjustment of the content of high school education to the kind of training demanded in the various ranks of the world's workers. The German educator, Doctor Kerschensteiner, declares that it is erroneous to assume "that it is possible to educate a man without reference to some special calling."

Indeed, high school education has, in a large measure, lost its original significance. Culture is now stressed, and the non-vocational side of high school education is often upheld as its chief glory. By a curious, but not unusual, process of slow evolution the old form of vocational high school education is now esteemed because it gives its possessors ideals and mannerisms which are distinctly opposite to those bestowed by the newer forms of vocational training-in short, because its ideals are now non-vocational or cultural. Reform in high school education means a return to first principles, modified to fit the demands of a complex industrial life in which specialization and subdivision of labor are characteristics of prime importance.

Since the work of the early high school was vocational