increased by 10 percent but were held within the same limits. Accidents suffered by a worker who was attempting to save someone's life, was defending public property, or was performing volunteer work were considered work-related accidents.

The yearly pension given for total permanent disability could amount to no less than 50 percent of the worker's average annual salary for his last five years of work. An additional 10 percent was given if the disability was work-related.

Maternity benefits provided women with daily payments of between 1.50 and 8 Cuban pesos for thirteen weeks, to be taken anytime after 72 months of pregnancy; neither they nor their husbands had to be employed a minimum amount of time to be eligible for these benefits. For rural women, the government operated homes near hospitals so they could be cared for before giving birth. Moreover, mothers unable to care for their young children because of job responsibilities left them in the daytime "infant circles" after they were 45 days old; in 1969 there were reported to be 356 such day-care centers catering to more than 42,000 children.

A worker was entitled to an old-age pension if he had worked at least 25 years and was at least 60 years old. The minimum pension was forty, and the maximum, 250 pesos a month.

Social security benefits in the first year of the law, 1963, amounted to 174,310,000 Cuban pesos, or about 8.3 percent of the nation's budget. By 1966 this had risen to 250 million Cuban pesos. The provisions of the Social Security Law were not all immediately implemented; nevertheless, the International Labor Organization recognized that Cuba has one of the four most advanced social security systems in Latin America.

STANDARD OF LIVING AND LEISURE

Compared with the situation existing before the Revolution, the general standard of living in the late 1960s was generally uniform and relatively egalitarian. Any able-bodied person between ages eighteen and sixty was entitled to a job if he so desired. For the most part necessities were available free or at moderate prices; housing was inexpensive, and education and most medical care were given free. Food was rationed to provide equitable distribution of goods in short supply because of import restrictions caused by a lack of foreign exchange, but official prices were reasonable. In addition, the government paid for such things as public phone service, sports events, wedding banquets, and funerals. On the other hand, luxury goods and services were prohibitively expensive. These conditions eased the plight particularly of those agricultural workers who, before the Revolution, remained unemployed and impoverished during the cane-growing season.

The average annual income dropped from about 422 Cuban pesos in 1958 to 415 Cuban pesos in 1968. The minimum wage was about 85 Cuban pesos a month; this was paid to agricultural workers, but room and board were usually provided free in such cases. The maximum wage was about 700 Cuban pesos, but few earned this.

Rationing was begun in 1961. Items appearing on the ration list have varied at different times depending on their availability, but most foods have appeared at one time or another; sugar has even been put on the list to curb domestic consumption and create more foreign exchange, but the ration has been more than ample except in bad harvest years. Private farmers were required to sell their produce at government-fixed prices (see ch. 18, Agriculture). Nevertheless, there has been a black market where food could be purchased for three or four times the state-fixed prices. In the late 1960s a great proportion of a family's income, between 50 and 80 percent, was spent on food alone.

Clothing was also rationed. In 1969 everyone could purchase two pair of shoes; women were entitled to about twenty-three yards of cloth and men to two suits; people who went abroad as diplomats or in other capacities were allowed more. Most women sewed their own and their children's clothing. The domestic production of cotton cloth and rubber footwear increased significantly between 1958 and 1968; before the Revolution more such products had to be imported. However, production has never been able to satisfy demand. The warm weather reduced the need for expensive outlays for clothing. Many people, especially rural children, went barefoot; but this practice was being discouraged because of the danger of intestinal parasites that can enter the body through the soles of the feet. Other items such as soap, beer, toilet paper, and bicycles were also rationed.

The ration book carried the names and ages of all family members. When a rationed item was purchased, it was noted in the book to be checked at the end of the month to see that no more than the proper amounts had been given. The ration set a maximum limit on what could be bought; it did not assure the availability of supplies. Housewives sometimes had to spend long hours waiting in line for items that quickly disappeared from store shelves.

Pleasures that used to be a hallmark of the Cuban nation in the eyes of foreigners have been severely restricted. Gambling and prostitution have been outlawed. At one point all nightclubs and bars were ordered closed on the grounds that they were scenes of "bourgeois pleasures" (antigovernment activity). This order was modified, however, so that nightclubs could remain open three nights a week.

Much "free time" was spent doing "volunteer labor" or participating in "organized recreation." Urban workers were were "en

couraged" to spend their weekends working in the countryside. University students spent some vacation time and three of every four weekends in the fields, participating in military training or directed recreational and cultural activities. Young people participated in the Pioneers Union of Cuba. Others belonged to such groups as the committees for the defense of the Revolution, which in addition to continuous surveillance activities, participating in the vaccination campaigns, and the Federation of Cuban Women, which provided numerous social services.

This pattern of hard work and inattention to pleasure-seeking was intensified during 1969, the Year of Decisive Effort, in preparation for the 1970 harvest (see ch. 18, Agriculture). May Day festivities were canceled for the first time since the Revolution. Christmas and New Year's Day celebrations were postponed until July 1970 when the harvest would be over (see ch. 11, Religion).

CHAPTER 9

EDUCATION

In late 1969 the government was continuing its efforts to adapt the educational system to meet its economic and social goals. Control of what was taught and how was entirely in the hands of the government. The traditional curriculum had been modified to conform with its political objectives and the academic calendar had been redesigned to ensure a labor supply for the sugar harvest, the success of which was essential to the economy. General education at all levels was being made more widely available, and specialized institutions, designed to provide additional persons with greatly needed technical and professional skills, were being further developed.

All students are encouraged to remain in school to complete at least a sixth-grade education. To help working mothers, there is a preprimary program for children between ages four to six, and day nurseries for younger children.

A basic secondary school was established for grades seven through ten; a higher secondary school provides preuniversity training and incorporates grades eleven and twelve. New types of secondary schools for industrial, agricultural, and other technical subjects have been created.

Adult education has received special emphasis. A nationwide literacy campaign, conducted in the early 1960s, was the initial step in this program. The goal is to give adults the equivalent of a sixth grade education. Most of the adult schools are evening programs, but there are also correspondence courses for those in rural areas and a special program of boarding schools for women.

The number of universities has decreased, but total enrollment has increased. Curricula have been altered to train more technicians and specialists rather than educate students in liberal arts.

Difficulties exist in providing the number of teachers required for the expansion of education. The problem has been compounded by the departure from the country of hundreds, if not thousands, of qualified teachers trained before the Revolution who have been reluctant to adjust to the new standards. The government is forced to utilize teachers who have not received adequate training. They continue their own education on Saturdays and between school terms.