could be arranged with other countries; arrangements for providing Spanish subtitles or dubbing dialogue for foreign films and programs were also made. In addition, the Animated Film Studios of the ICR produced cartoons primarily for television. For the most part these films are educational or informative even while they are entertaining. In 1969 cartoons produced included ones on the raising of citrus fruit, public announcements concerning gastroenteritis, and films designed for classes that were to be taught via television covering such subjects as modern mathematics, zoology, and geography. Children's cartoons were also produced by the ICR, usually with a revolutionary moral. ICAIC also had a department for the production of animated cartoons as well as one for short films dealing with agriculture, hygiene, and civic education designed for rural areas.

ICAIC also produced full-length feature films. Among the best were: Memories of Underdevelopment, which was about a bourgeois intellectual who has accepted but is confused by revolutionary values; and Lucia, about three women in different historical periods, 1895, 1932, and 1961 (see ch. 10, Artistic and Intellectual Expression). Others were Death of a Bureaucrat and The American War.

ICAIC was responsible for choosing the films to be imported. In the late 1960s about 40 percent came from Communist countries, primarily the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and the People's Republic of China (Communist China); 30 percent came from Western Europe (primarily England, Spain, and France); and the remainder came from Japan, Mexico, and elsewhere. In addition, United States films that predated 1961 were constantly being reshown.

Controversy concerning the showing of foreign films has arisen on occasion. In 1964 the newspaper Hoy criticized the showing of films from non-Communist countries as being a corrupting influence; Revolución opposed this view. The issue flared but then died down, and the films continued to be shown. The Czech film Love is Reaped in Summer was allowed to run for three weeks but, since it showed girls in miniskirts at a time when the government was campaigning against them, it was withdrawn. A French film Lola was prevented from being shown because one of the characters was a United States sailor. People of Moscow, which had won a prize at the Leipzig festival, was withdrawn from the theaters when the Soviet Embassy objected to its being shown.

RADIO AND TELEVISION

In the decade from 1959 to 1969 there was considerable expansion in the facilities of radio and television. In 1959 there were still

areas of the country that could not receive radio signals; radio and television facilities were heavily concentrated in Havana.

The government gained control of radio and television by 1961, using methods similar to those applied to the newspapers, including even the use of coletillas (little tails), or postscript commentaries. It realized early their importance in involving the entire country in building socialism, especially those people in remote areas whom the press and cinema, because of transportation problems, could not reach regularly. By 1969 the entire country could receive both radio and television signals, although television reception was poor in some areas, (particularly in Oriente Province), and sets were not well distributed. Radio and television, consequently, played a larger role than did the other media. Castro used them when he broadcast his lengthy speeches, often three or four hours long, in their entirety.

On the other hand, because together they constituted the medium of appeal to the mass of the people, radio and television programming tended to be both propagandistic and entertaining rather than educational and cultural.

Radio

In 1969 there were 121 AM (amplitude modulation) radio stations and 27 FM (frequency modulation) stations (see table 6). All were owned by the government and operated by the ICR, with the exception of one AM station (one kilowatt power) located at Guantánamo Bay and run by the United States Armed Forces Radio and Television Service. There were an estimated 1.3 million radio receivers in the country in 1968, or about one for every six people; they were not subject to license fees. Many were installed in public places such as parks, schools, and places of employment.

There were a number of national and provincial network systems. Four of the most important national networks were: Reloj Nacional (National Time), with fourteen stations; Radio Rebelde (Rebel Radio), with eleven stations; Radio Progreso (Progress Radio), with eight stations; and Radio Musical Nacional (National Music Radio), with six stations. In 1967 Radio Musical Nacional broadcast eighteen hours of classical music a day.

Radio Rebelde, which was the most powerful in the country, and Radio Progreso were directed to appeal to wider audiences but particularly to the peasant sector of the population. There was heavy emphasis on children's programs, melodrama, sports events, news, and popular music. In addition, radio versions of plays and novels and selected university lectures were occasionally broadcast. A radio sex education program was begun in 1967.

Most of the networks had their key stations in Havana and be

tween six and fourteen relay stations located in important provincial towns; an exception to this was CMKC, Cadena Provincial de Oriente (Provincial Network of Oriente), which had its key station in Santiago de Cuba and seven relay stations in other towns in the province. In addition to the networks, there were numerous socalled independent stations both in Havana and in the provinces, most of them ranging between 250 and 2,000 watts in power.

Television

In mid-1968 there were twenty television stations, nineteen of them owned and operated by the ICR (see table 7). All were relay stations except for two key stations located in Havana and a third owned and operated by the United States navy and located at Guantánamo Bay. Both key stations were part of the Televisión Nacional (National Television) network. In late 1968 a third station, Tele-Rebelde, was established in Havana, apparently independent of Televisión Nacional, but little information was available regarding it. Cubans were not limited to listening to domestic stations, as programs emanating from Miami could be received on Cuban television. Although Baracoa in Oriente Province was the last major area to be covered by domestic television (in 1966), it is probable that residents of the area were able to view programs from Miami before 1966 because of Baracoa's location on the north coast of the island (see ch. 2, Physical Environment).

There were an estimated 575,000 television receivers in 1968, or about one for every thirteen inhabitants; more than 8,000 were located in public places in addition to the 10,000 that were being used in schools. Vanguard workers were given first priority to buy available television sets (see ch. 6, Social Structure).

Experimentation with television in the schools was being carried out in 1969. More than seventy classes a week in a number of subjects were scheduled to be televised over channel 6 in Havana, reportedly to reach about 180,000 secondary school students. Classes on soils, fertilizer, and livestock breeding given at the People's Technological Institute were televised and were part of the curriculum at a number of schools, as well as being available to the general public. In addition, people who were put in charge of recently nationalized industries were reportedly going to receive training via a televised course.

One program called Teatro ICR (ICR Theater) was inaugurated in 1964; it broadcast such plays as Tennessee Williams's Sweet Bird of Youth and A Streetcar Named Desire. In 1969 a program was initiated called Tuesday Panel, a discussion series to be devoted to scientific, political, and cultural subjects. Performances of the National Symphony and visiting foreign artistic groups, such as the