§ 7. General Remarks.

1. Grammars differ very widely as to the structure of the English verb. Some following a classical model present us with a mere translation of the Latin or Greek verb. Others rush to the opposite extreme, and forgetting that English is not Anglo-Saxon, conjugate the verb as if the reverse were the case. The principle which ought Our language is com

to guide us lies between the two extremes. posite, and derived from Norman-French as well as from A.-Saxon. It seems only reasonable to consider both these elements in our calculation. Hence, in addition to the simple tenses, only those formed by the auxiliaries 'have' and 'be' ought to be admitted.

2. At first sight an exception seems to meet us in the use of 'shall' and 'will.' This is more apparent than real. The future tense in Latin, French, and English also, is not a simple tense, but one compounded of the verb to have and the infinitive mood. Thus (Lat.) amabo amare habeo = French, j'aimerai, i.e. j'ai-aimer = I have to love, i.e. I shall love. Now shall originally means to owe, and owe (from Goth. 'aigan') means to have or hold; hence, 'I shall love' is exactly like the corresponding tense in Lat. or French, and means I have to love.

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3. Exception also may be taken to the emphatic forms, as introducing another auxiliary, 'do.' The fact is, we have an emphatic future will,' and thus we are led to ask, Why not an emphatic past and an emphatic present? Rigidly, of course, they should be excluded, if the principle above laid down be adopted. Otherwise there will be no limit to the number of possible tenses; and all our auxiliary verbs ought to be enlisted in the conjugation of a single verb. 'Paulopost future' forms have been given by some grammarians,* and, besides the indicative and subjunctive moods which we certainly possess, we are sometimes favoured with a potential mood (where we

* We might as reasonably expect to find in the conjugation of a French verb the 'tenses,' 'je vais écrire,' ‘je viens d'écrire'!

get it from is a mystery). Why not an optative mood-a permissive mood-a compulsory mood?

4. Strong verbs have a tendency to become weak. Where the strong and weak forms coexist, the verb is in a state of transition. As we have remarked, 'all derived verbs take the weak form;' so also do new verbs, and verbs derived from classical origin.

5. The present tendency of the language is to reject the distinction of the subjunctive mood. Some grammarians assert, facts notwithstanding, that we have no subjunctive mood!

ADVERB (according to)

CHAPTER VII.

THE ADVERB.

§ 1.

1. Definition. 'AN ADVERB is a word joined to a verb, or any attributive, to denote some modification, degree, or circumstance of the expressed attribute.'

§ 2. Adverb according to Meaning.

1. ADVERBS are classified according to (i) Meaning; (ii) Connection; (iii.) Structure or Origin.

2. ADVERBS according to meaning express (i) TIME; (ii) PLACE; (iii) DEGREE OF QUANTITY; (iv) QUALITY.

3. ADVERBS of TIME are those which answer the questions,

(i) when? (periodal), i. e. a fixed point of time, past, present, future, indefinite.

(ii) how long? (continuous), the duration of time; as, always, ever, never.

(iii) how often? (repetitive), the repetition of time; as, once, twice, often.

(iv) how soon? (relative), to some other event; as, then, meanwhile, before, &c.

4. ADVERBS of PLACE are those which answer to the questions, (i) where? (positional), rest in or at a place; as, here, there, above, &c.

(ii) whence (amotional), motion from a place; as hence, thence, away,

(iii) whither? (admotional), motion to a place; as, hither, thither, down, &c.

(iv) whereabouts? (ordinal), in what order; as firstly, lastly,

&c.

5. ADVERBS of DEGREE OF QUANTITY are those which answer to the questions how much? how little? or to the idea of more or less. These adverbs express degree without comparison (positive); as, however so.

abundance (expletive); as, much, too, very.

sufficiency (adequate); as, enough,

equally, exactly.

deficiency (defective); as, less, hardly, &c.

6. ADVERBS of QUALITY answer the question how? or express

affirmation, negation, uncertainty.

7. ADVERBS that relate to time, place, and manner are generally connected with verbs or participles. Adverbs that relate to degree with adjectives or adverbs.

§ 3. Adverb according to Connection and Structure.

1. ADVERBS according to their Connection are (i) simply attributive, i. e. qualify verbs; adjectives, and other adverbs; or, in addition to this, (ii) have a conjunctional force. The latter connect clauses; they are often adverbs of cause; as, why, wherefore: relative forms, as, where, when: pronominal compound adverbs; as, wherewith, hereafter, &c. than, so, as.

2. ADVERBS according to Structure are simple, derived, compound. (i) Simple Adverbs are monosyllabic and Saxon; such as, now, oft, aye, ill, well.

(ii) ADVERBS are derived,

(a) From nouns :—

old genitives; as, needs, unawares, eftsoons, once, twice, thrice, &c.

old datives; as, seldom, whilom.

by suffix ling; as, darkling, with diminutive force. by four prefixes, a, al, be, to.

(b) from adjectives and nouns :—

by four suffixes, ly, wise, ways, wards.