‘He walks,' i. e. 'He is walking.' 'This author contradicts your assertion.' Sub. Pred. This author is contradicting your assertion.' 5. TERMS are so called because they are subjects or predicates, i. e. termini propositionis,' or 'extremes of a proposition.' They are now generally used for words limited to a particular signification. 6. The subject may be (i) a noun, with or without adjuncts; (ii) an infinitive mood; (iii) a sentence. 7. The predicate may be an adjective; (ii) a noun; (iii) an infinitive mood; (iv) a sentence. 8. There are many ways of considering the relation of subject and predicate. The simplest method is, perhaps, to consider the predicate as a whole, and the subject as a part. Thus, in the proposition, 'All men are animals,' we imply that (the subject) 'men' is a part of the class 'animal' (predicate). 9. Propositions are divided according to their substance, quality, and quantity. The SUBSTANCE of a PROPOSITION is the nature of its assertion. If we assert absolutely, i. e. without a condition, the proposition is called categorical; if, with a condition, hypothetical; as, 'Books are instructive' (categorical). 'If books are instructive, they are useful' (hypothetical). N.B.-All hypotheticals may be reduced to categoricals, by changing if, &c. into the case of, as in the latter example: Subject The case of books-being-instructive is Predicate a case-of-their-being 10. The QUALITY of a proposition is the character of its asserThis character is twofold; (i) essential; (ii) accidental. The tion. essential character is its being affirmative or negative. The accidental character is its being true or false. 11. A TERM is said in logic to be distributed' when it is taken for all and each of the things signified by it;' as, when we say, 'All men are mortal.' Here men is said to be distributed, for we predicate mortality of the whole class-man, and of every individual composing it. 12. By the QUANTITY of a PROPOSITION we mean the extent of its distribution. According to this division propositions are either universal, particular, singular, or indefinite. Of these four kinds of propositions, SINGULARS are regarded as UNIVERSALS, and INDEFINITES are either UNIVERSALS or PARTICULARS, according to their matter, i. e. the nature of the connection of the extremes. This matter is of three kinds-necessary, impossible, contingent. If the matter be necessary or impossible, the proposition will be universal; if contingent, particular; as, 'Snow is white' (necessary), i. e. 'All snow is white.' 13. Hence all propositions can be reduced to four kinds :— 1. All X 2. No XC is is 3. Some x is y, universal affirmative (A). y, universal negative (E). y, particular affirmative (I). 4. Some x is not y, particular negative (0). 14. These four kinds of proposition are symbolised in logic by the letters A, E, I, 0. 15. A distributes its subject; E distributes both subject and predicate; I distributes neither; O distributes the predicate. This is easily remembered by the rule :— Universals distribute their subjects. 16. The following diagrams will simply illustrate the meaning of this with reference to what has been said about the relation between subject and predicate :— X Y A. All men are animals, i. e. the whole class man is a part of the class animal. Y X O. Some metals are not scarce, i. e. a part of the class 'metal' is entirely without the whole class 'scarce.' DO 17. With the following scheme of division we conclude this brief sketch of 'Proposition' treated logically. For complete information on this subject the student is referred to Whately's Logic. CHAPTER II. SENTENCES. 1. Definition. SYNTAX is that part of Grammar which treats of the right arrangement of words in a sentence. 2. A SENTENCE is a complete expression of thought. 3. A PROPOSITION is defined grammatically to be—' the asserting part of a sentence.' Hence a sentence may contain several propositions. 4. Sentences are of three kinds-simple, complex, compound. (i) A SIMPLE SENTENCE has one predicate; as, 1 'The good woman prepared for me a simple meal.' (ii) A COMPLEX SENTENCE has two or more predicates: one principal, and the others dependent or subordinate; as, 1 2 'We manure the fields, in order that they may become fruitful.' (iii) A COMPOUND SENTENCE consists of two or more principal or coordinate assertions; as, 1 2 'The boat sank, and they were all drowned.' 5. The following is an analytical scheme of 'sentence: 6. SIMPLE SENTENCE. (a) The essential parts of a sentence are subject and predicate. These every sentence must possess, and, in addition, it may, according to circumstances, have complement of the predicate, and extension of the predicate. (b) The subject may be, (i) A noun, with or without modifications or adjuncts. (iii) A sentence itself. (c) By the predicate in grammar is meant the copula+attribute; hence generally the verb, or its equivalent. (d) The complement of the predicate completes the sense concerning the action affirmed; thus, 'The boy struck the dog.' The boy struck, what?—the dog. Here 'the dog' completes the predicate, and conveys perfect sense. The complement of the predicate after a transitive verb is called the object. (e) The extension of the predicate means its qualifications, which must be adverbs, adverbial phrases, or their equivalents. The extension of predicate answers the questions, when? where? why? how? &c. 7. COMPLEX SENTENCES consist of one principal sentence, and one or more subordinate sentences, which are of three kinds : (i) The noun sentence. (ii) The adjective sentence. (iii) The adverb sentence. (i) Noun sentences mostly begin with that or it, and may be either the object or subject of the principal sentence; as, Noun sentence. 'It is not known (where Moses was buried).' |