perfectly confirms the accuracy of the formulæ given by Marignac, and indicates the quantitative analogy between the compounds of niobium and tantalum, and those of phosphorus and arsenic, and consequently also of vanadium. In their qualitative relations (as is evident also from the correspondence of the atomic weights), the compounds of tantalum and niobium exhibit a great analogy with the compounds of molybdenum and tungsten. Thus zinc, when acting on acid solutions of tantalic and niobic compounds, gives a blue coloration, exactly as it does with those of tungsten and molybdenum (also titanium). These acids form the same large number of salts as those of tungsten and molybdenum. The anhydrides of the acids are also insoluble in water, but as colloids are sometimes held in solution, just like those of titanic and molybdic acids. Furthermore, niobium is in every respect the nearest analogue of molybdenum, and tantalum of tungsten. Niobium is obtained by reducing the double fluoride of niobium and sodium, with sodium. It is difficult to obtain in a pure state. It is a metal on which hydrochloric acid acts with some energy, as also does hydrofluoric acid mixed with nitric acid, and also a boiling solution of caustic potash. Tantalum, which is obtained in exactly the same way, is a much heavier metal. It is infusible, and is only acted on by a mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acids. Rose in 1868 showed that in the reduction of the double fluoride, NbF5,2KF, by sodium, a greyish powder is obtained after treating with water. The specific gravity of this powder is 68, and he considers it to be niobium hydride, NbH. Neither did he obtain metallic niobium when he reduced with magnesium and aluminium, but an alloy, Al-Nb, having a sp. gr. of 4'5.

Niobium, so far as is known, unites in three proportions with oxygen. NbO, which is formed when NbOF,,2KF is reduced by sodium; NbO2, which is formed by igniting niobic acid in a stream of hydrogen, and niobic anhydride, Nb,O5, a white infusible substance, which is insoluble in acids, and has a specific gravity of 45. Tantalic anhydride closely resembles niobic anhydride, and has a specific gravity of 72. The tantalates and niobates present the type of ortho-salts--for example, Na,HNbO4,6H,O, and also of pyro-salts, such as K2HNb,O,,6H,O, and of meta-salts-for example, KNbO3,2H,O. And, besides these, they give salts of a more complex type, containing a larger amount of the elements of the anhydride; thus, for instance, when niobic anhydride is fused with caustic potash it forms a salt which is soluble in water, and crystallises in monoclinic prisms, having the composition K.NbO19,16H O. There is a perfectly similar isomorphous salt of tantalic acid. Tantalite is a salt of the type of metatantalic acid, Fe(TaO5)2. The composition of Yttrotantalite appears to correspond with orthotantalie acid.

CHAPTER XX

SULPHUR, SELENIUM, AND TELLURIUM

THE acid character of the higher oxides RO3 of the elements of group VI. is still more clearly defined than that of the higher oxides of the preceding groups, whilst feeble basic properties only appear in the oxides RO of the elements of the even series, and then only for those elements having a high atomic weight—that is, under those two conditions in which, as a rule, the basic characters increase. Even the lower types RO, and R2O3, &c., formed by the elements of group VI., are acid anhydrides in the uneven series, and only those of the elements of the even series have the properties of peroxides or even of bases.

Sulphur is the typical representative of group VI., both on account of the fact that the acid properties of the group are clearly defined in it, and also because it is more widely distributed in nature than any of the other elements belonging to this group. As an element of the uneven series

of group VI., sulphur gives HS, sulphuretted hydrogen, SO3, sulphuric anhydride, and SO2, sulphurous anhydride. And in all of them we find acid properties-SO, and SO, are anhydrides of acids, and HS is an acid, although a feeble one. As an element sulphur has all the properties of a true non-metal; it has not a metallic lustre, does not conduct electricity, is a bad conductor of heat, is transparent, and combines directly with metals-in short it has all the properties of the non-metals, like oxygen and chlorine. Furthermore, sulphur exhibits a great qualitative and quantitative resemblance to oxygen, especially n the fact that, like oxygen, it combines with two atoms of hydrogen, and forms compounds resembling oxides with metals and non-metals. From this point of view sulphur is bivalent, if the halogens are univalent. The chemical character of sulphur is expressed by the fact

1 The character of sulphur is very clearly defined in the organo-metallic compounds. Not to dwell on this vast subject, which belongs to the province of organic chemistry, I think it will be sufficient for our purpose to compare the physical properties of the ethyl compounds of mercury, zinc, sulphur and oxygen. The composition of all of them is expressed by the general formula (CH),R, where R Hg, Zn, S, or O. They are all volatile: mercury ethyl, Hg(CH3)2, boils at 159°, its sp. gr. is 2444, molecular

that it forms a very slightly stable and feebly energetic acid with hydrogen. The salts corresponding with this acid are the sulphides, just as the oxides correspond to water and the chlorides to hydrochloric acid. However, as we shall afterwards see more fully, the sulphides are more analogous to the former than to the latter. But although combining with metals, like oxygen, sulphur also forms chemically stable compounds with oxygen, and this fact impresses a peculiar character on all the relations of this element.2

Sulphur belongs to the number of those elements which are very widely distributed in nature, and occurs both free and combined in various forms. The atmosphere, however, is almost entirely free from compounds of sulphur, although a certain amount of them should be present, if only from the fact that sulphurous anhydride is emitted from the earth in volcanic eruptions, and in the air of cities, where much coal is burnt, since this always contains FeS2. Sea and river water generally contain more or less sulphur in the form of sulphates. The beds of gypsum, sodium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, and the like are formations of undoubtedly aqueous origin. The sulphates contained in the soil are the source of the sulphur found in plants, and are indispensable to their growth. Among vegetable substances, the proteïds always contain from one to two per cent. of sulphur. From plants the albuminous substances, together with their sulphur, pass into the animal organism, and therefore the decomposition of animal matter is accompanied by the odour of sulphuretted hydrogen, as the product into which the sulphur passes in the decomposition of the albuminous substances. Thus a rotten egg emits sulphuretted hydrogen. Sulphur occurs largely in nature, as the various insoluble sulphides of the metals. Iron, copper, zinc, lead, antimony, arsenic, &c.. occur in nature combined with sulphur. These sulphides frequently have a metallic lustre, and in the majority of cases occur crystallised,

==

volume 106; zinc ethyl boils at 118, sp. gr. 1882, volume 101; ethyl sulphide, S(CH3)2, boils at 90', sp. gr. 0825, volume 107; common ether, or ethyl oxide, O(CH3)2, boils at 35, sp. gr. 0736, volume 101, in addition to which diethyl itself, (CH3)2 = C4H109 boils about 0°, sp. gr. about 0'62, volume about 94. Thus the substitution of Hg, S, and O scarcely changes the volume, notwithstanding the difference of the weights; the physical influence, if one may so express oneself, of these elements, which are so very different in their atomic weights, is almost alike.

2 Therefore in former times sulphur was known as an amphid element. Although the analogy between the compounds of sulphur and oxygen has been recognised from the very birth of modern chemistry (owing, amongst other things, to the fact that the oxides and sulphides are the most widely spread metallic ores in nature), still it has only been clearly expressed by the periodic system, which places both these elements in group VI. Here, moreover, stands out that parallelism which exists between SO2 and ozone OO, between K2SO, and peroxide of potassium K2O, (Volkovitch in 1893 again drew attention to this parallelism).

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and also very often several sulphides occur combined or mixed together in these crystalline compounds. If they are yellow and have a metallic lustre they are called pyrites. Such are, for example, copper pyrites, CuFeS,, and iron pyrites, FeS2, which is the commonest of all. They are all also known as glances or blendes if they are greyish and have a metallic lustre-for example, zinc blende, lead glance, PbS, antimony glance, Sb,S3, &c. And, lastly, sulphur occurs native. It occurs in this form in the most recent geological formations in admixture with limestone and gypsum, and most frequently in the vicinity of active or extinct volcanoes. As the gases of volcanoes co tain sulphur compounds-namely, sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous anhydride, which by reacting on one another may produce sulphur, which also frequently appears in the craters of volcanoes as a sublimate -it might be imagined that the sulphur was of volcanic origin. But on a nearer aquaintance with its mode of occurrence, and more especially considering its relation to gypsum, CaSO,, and limestone, the present general opinion leads to the conclusion that the 'native' sulphur has been formed by the reduction of the gypsum by organic matter and that its occurrence is only indirectly connected with volcanic agencies. Near Tetush, on the Volga, there are beds containing gypsum, sulphur, and asphalt (mineral tar). In Europe the most important deposits of sulphur are in the south of Sicily from Catania to Girgenti. There are very rich deposits of sulphur in Daghestan near Cherkai and Cherkat in Khyut, near Mount Kanabour-bam, near Petrovsk, and in the Kira Koumski steppes in the Trans-Caspian provinces, which are able to supply the whole of Russia with this mineral. Abundant deposits of sulphur have also been found in Kamtchatka in the neighbourhood of the volcanoes. The method of separation of the sulphur from its earthy impurities is based on the fact that sulphur melts when it is heated. The fusion is carried on at the expense of a portion of the sulphur, which is burnt, so that the remainder may melt and run from the mass of the earth. This is carried on in special furnaces called calcaroni, built up of unhewn stone in the neighbourhood of the mines.4

3

3 When in Sicily, I found, near Caltanisetta, a specimen of sulphur with mineral tar. In the same neighbourhood there are naphtha springs and mud volcanoes. It may be that these substances have reduced the sulphur from gypsum.

The chief proof in favour of the origin of sulphur from gypsum is that in treating the deposits for the extraction of the sulphur it is found that the proportion of sulphur to calcium carbonate never exceeds that which it would be had they both been derived from calcium sulphate.

4 Naturally only those ores of sulphur which contain a considerable amount of sulphur can be treated by this method. With poor ores it is necessary to have recourse to dis

Sulphur is purified by distillation in special retorts (see fig. 86) by passing the vapour into a chamber G built of stone. The first portions of the vapour entering into the condensing chamber are condensed straightway from the vapour into a solid state, and form a fine powder

known as flowers of sulphur.5 But when the temperature of the receiver attains the melting point of sulphur, it passes into a liquid tillation or mechanical treatment in order to separate the sulphur, but its price is so low that this method in most cases is not profitable.

The sulphur obtained by the above-described method still contains some impurities, but it is frequently made use of in this form for many purposes, and especially in considerable quantities for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and for strewing over grapes. For other purposes, and especially in the preparation of gunpowder, a purer sulphur is required. Sulphur may be purified by distillation. The crude sulphur is called rough, and the distilled sulphur refined. The arrangement given in fig. 86 is employed for refining sulphur. The rough sulphur is melted in the boiler d, and as it melts it is run through the tube F into an iron retort B heated by the naked flame of the furnace. Here the sulphur is converted into vapour, which passes through a wide tube into the chamber G, surrounded by stone walls and furnished with a safety-valve S.

5 Flowers of sulphur always contain a certain amount of the oxides of sulphur.