truths and convictions can have no permanent authority over the human soul. With due recognition of these primary realities we turn to the Holy Scriptures to learn what they have to tell us about the nature and origin of man. 2. The Bodily Form. One of the most obvious facts in the constitution of man is his possession of a bodily form. It is remarkable with what minuteness the biblical writers incidentally mention the various parts of the human body: bones, sinews, marrow, flesh, blood, fat, skin, hair; the head, the neck, the shoulders, the arms, hands, fingers, and nails; the eye, the ear, the nose, the mouth, the tongue;-all these and numerous other parts are familiarly referred to in a manner that would be naturally expected in a literature so extensive and various as that of the canonical books. The psalmist was filled with awe at the thought of his being "fearfully and wonderfully made" (Psa. cxxxix, 14). But none of the sacred writers attempt what we would call a scientific analysis and description of the human constitution. The account of man's creation, in Gen. ii, 7, portrays the formation of the body as preparatory to the impartation of the breath of life. The writer of Eccl. xi, 5, does not presume to know "how the bones grow in the womb of her that is with child," nor the "way of the Spirit," nor "the work of God who doeth all." Ezekiel's vision of the resurrection of the house of Israel from their graves of exile exhibits bones, sinews, flesh, and skin appearing before the breath of life came into them (Ezek. xxxvii, 7-10). In Job iv, 19, Eliphaz speaks of men as dwelling in houses of clay, and having their foundation in the dust. In Dan. vii, 15, the Aramaic word for a sheath (7) is employed metaphorically to denote the body as the material cover of the emotional spirit. In 2 Cor. v, 1, the body is called "the earthly house," a tent that is to be dissolved; and in verses 3 and 4 of the same chapter the figure is changed to suggest the thought of the covering of an outside garment. And so in various ways the human body is conceived as a house or cover of the living soul, the external visible organ of the self-conscious personality that thinks and feels. 3. Life, Soul, and Blood. Within this bodily frame, in some invisible organism of its own, exists the living human soul. Man and beast alike possess this element or principle of animal life, which certain scriptures speak of as present and moving in the blood. But how this subtile, invisible essence is distributed through the delicate organs of the body, and what manner of organic connection it holds with them, man has not yet been able to discover. By means of the processes of breathing and through the circulation of the blood the animal soul seems to be present and more or less sensitive in every fiber, nerve, and organ of the body. The language of Gen. ix, 4, is noteworthy: "Flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof, shall ye not eat." Here the word blood is grammatically in apposition with life, or soul, implying that the writer closely identified the two.' The context shows that this prohibition of eating blood is based upon the conception that it is the visible bodily element in which the living soul moves and has its being. It thus represents the God-given life, sacred alike in man and beast, but especially in man who was made "in the image of God." In Deut. xii, 23, the prohibition is equally explicit: "The blood is the life (or soul), and thou shalt not eat the life with the flesh." The same thought is even more emphatically expressed in Lev. xvii, 11, 14: "The life (or soul) of the flesh is in the blood; and I have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement for your souls. . . . For as to the life of all flesh, its blood is in (one with) its life. . For the life of all flesh is its blood." This mysterious union of life, soul, and blood is also implied in "pouring out one's soul unto death" (Isa. liii, 12; Lam. ii, 12); "smiting the soul of the blood of an innocent one" (Deut. xxvii, 25; comp. Jer. ii, 34). Hence, too, the significance of the blood of Abel crying from the ground on which it had been poured out (Gen. iv, 10), and John's vision of the souls under the altar crying for the avenging of their blood (Rev. vi, 9, 10). So all the biblical writers appear to regard the life, the soul, and the blood as most intimately connected in the natural constitution of man.' 4. The Heart. The heart (5, kapdía) of man is spoken of in the Scriptures as the vital center of each individual life. As the life (or soul) of the flesh is in the blood, and at death issues from the body like the pouring out of water from a vessel, so it has, like the blood, its source or fountain in the heart. As the heart in the body is the fountain of the natural life, the same word is appropriately used to designate the center and source of all the higher conscious activities of the soul. Thoughts, imaginations, purposes, memory, reflection, judgment, belief, and unbelief, 'Literally the passage reads: "Flesh in its soul, its blood, ye shall not eat.” In the Hebrew the one word D is employed to denote either life or soul. The process of breathing and nourishment is, by the circulation of the blood, spread over the whole body as one single process, bringing to every organ renewed powers of life and growth. In blood, therefore, the invisible breath of the soul is wedded to the most delicate corporeal matter, and what is invisible passes into visible material life. Soul, since it at once gives life to the body, exists in blood as fleshly soul. Blood in its animated state forms the life of every fleshly soul: in other words, it forms animal life, for blood and breath, wanting in plants, are first met with in animals.-Beck, Outlines of Biblical Psychology, pp. 3, 4. Edinburgh, 1877. and all emotions of love and hatred, of joy and grief, are predicated of the heart. In this higher sense the word is not employed in speaking of the brute creation. It is common to mention heart and soul together (Deut. xxx, 2, 6, 10; Josh. xxii, 5; 1 Sam. ii, 35; Isa. xxvi, 8, 9; Mic. vii, 1). Man is to love God with all the heart and soul (Deut. vi, 4; Matt. xxii, 37). We read of a wise and understanding heart (Exod. xxxv, 25, 35; 1 Kings iii, 9, 12), a willing heart, a tender heart, a hardened heart, a perverse heart, and great projects and resolutions of heart. The heart is capable of joy and sorrow, of vexation, and pride, and anxiety, and madness and despair. The peace of God may dwell in the heart, as well as holy zeal and boldness. The heart of the innocent may be beguiled (Rom. xvi, 18), and become the seat of many fleshly lusts. A man determines in his own heart the free action of the power of his own will (1 Cor. vii, 37). From all which it is clear that the biblical writers employ the word heart to denote the seat and the faculties of feeling, thought, and action.' 5. Reins, Intestines, Breath. Other interior organs of the human body are named by the biblical writers as if, like the heart, they were the seat and center of our emotions and our thoughts. The reins (or kidneys), the intestines, and even the liver (Lam. ii, 11) are thus employed to denote the conditions and activities of the living soul. In Prov. xx, 27, the breath is spoken of as if it were one with the intellect that is capable of perception and of searching: A lamp of Jehovah is the breath of man In 1 Cor. xiv, 20, "Be not children but men of full age in your powers of understanding," the word opéves (the midriff, or diaphragm) is used as in Homer for all the mental powers. And thus by a natural way of thinking of the invisible soul as within, the internal parts of the body are named in all languages, by figure of speech, to denote the various emotions, desires, and operations of the mind. 6. The Head. It is somewhat remarkable that the only biblical reference to the head as the seat of human thought is found in the Aramaic portion of the book of Daniel (ii, 28; iv, 5, 10, 13; vii, 1, 15). The phrase employed in these texts is "visions of the The heart is the laboratory and place of issue of all that is good and evil in thoughts, words and deeds; the rendezvous of evil lusts and passions; a good or an evil treasure. It is the place where God's natural law is written in us, and effectually proves itself, as also the place of the positive law put within by grace. It is the seat of conscience, and all the testimonies of conscience are ascribed to it. Delitzsch, System of Biblical Psychology, p. 295. Comp. also Weiss, Biblical Theology of the New Testament, vol. i, p. 349. head," and it accords with the habits of prophetie thought and speech for a seer to "lift up his eyes, and look, and behold" (comp. Zech. i, 18; ii, 1; v, 1). So as "the wise man's eyes are in his head" (Eccl. ii, 14), the head itself might very naturally have been mentioned as the seat of vision. We should also compare the saying, "The lamp of the body is the eye" (Matt. vi, 22), and note how "the eyes of the heart" are mentioned in Eph. i, 18. A comparison of Dan. ii, 28 and 30, shows, furthermore, that the Aramaic writer identified visions of the head with thoughts of the heart. The biblical writers seem to have had no knowledge of the modern view of the brain as the chief organ of the mind. It has been thought, however, that the words for marrow, in Job xxi, 24, and in Heb. iv, 12, may denote the spinal marrow, and, by association, the entire nervous system, including the brain and the spinal cord. But these allusions are too incidental, and the inferences from a single word so incidentally used are too farfetched to be trustworthy.' 7. The Mind. Man's intellectual faculty of perceiving, thinking, reasoning, and judging is designated in the New Testament by the words νοῦς and διάνοια. The risen Christ "opened their mind, that they might understand the scriptures" (Luke xxiv, 45). Lydia's heart was similarly opened to receive the teaching of Paul (Acts. xvi, 14); so that mind and heart are used in this sense interchangeably. The mind is described in the Pauline epistles variously, as reprobate (Rom. i, 28); fleshly (vovs τñs oapKÓ5, Col. ii, 18); unfruitful (1 Cor. xiv, 14); vain and corrupt (Eph. iv, 17; 1 Tim. vi, 5). In Rom. vii, 23, 25, the word appears to mean the seat and organ of intelligence and of sober moral judgment. In 1 Cor. xiv, 15, 19, it means intelligent discrimination as against a mere emotional rapture in worship. In Phil. iv, 7, the peace of God which is to guard hearts and thoughts is said to transcend all mind (Távта vovv), that is, it surpasses every power of reason and understanding. In Rev. xiii, 18, and xvii, 9, the man that has mind, and the mind that has wisdom, are called upon to solve the mysteries of prophecy. The word diávola appears to be used in the New Testament in substantially the same sense as vous. It is the term employed in the great commandment as found in the three synoptic gospels: "Thou shalt love God with all thy heart. . . soul . . . mind." Compare also 1 John v, 20; 1 Pet. i, 13; 2 Pet. iii, 1; Eph. iv, 18; Col. i, 21; and the association of heart and mind in Heb. viii, 10, and x, 16. In Mark xii, 33, the word ouveo5 is used as a synonym of diávola 1 One may read what is to be said for this notion in Delitzsch, System of Biblical Psychology, p. 275. Edinburgh, 1869. (comp. ver. 30), but in other passages (Luke ii, 47; 1 Cor. i, 19; Eph. iii, 4; Col. i, 9; ii, 2; 2 Tim. ii, 7) it denotes rather the products or the acquirements of the mind. Such a naming of the faculty of thought for thought itself is a common usage in all cultivated languages. The word vónua (in 2 Cor. iii, 14; iv, 4; xi, 3; Phil. iv, 7) denotes the mind itself; in 2 Cor. ii, 11; x, 5, however, it has the meaning of thoughts or devices of the mind. But the verb voéw always designates the conscious activities or states of the understanding. In Luke i, 51, we meet the phrase "imagination (diávoia) of the heart," where it is seen that the heart is conceived as the source of the thoughts of man. In Luke xxiv, 45, we are told that Jesus opened the mind (vovv) of his disciples to understand (ovviévai) the scriptures. One is to be fully assured in his own mind (Rom. xiv, 5), and brethren are exhorted to be perfectly united "in the same mind and in the same judgment (yvwun)" (1 Cor. i, 10). All these scriptures assume a faculty of thought in man as a natural element of the human constitution, but it does not appear that any special study of the words for mind, heart, soul, and spirit, as employed by the biblical writers, is likely to throw important light upon the constituent parts of man's nature, or lead to a scientific and trustworthy analysis of them. 8. The Spirit. The spirit of man is a term often employed to denote that which is noblest and most godlike in the human constitution. It is the vital principle by which all other elements of our being are animated. It is the seat of our self-conscious personality, the subject which exercises the power of reasoning, reflecting, judging, determining action, and putting forth free volitions. But the word is very often used in other significations. Both the Hebrew and the Greek vɛvua denote the wind, the vital breath, the quality, disposition, or temper of one's mind. Angels and demons are usually called spirits, mainly because their essential nature is supposed to be without any of the characteristic properties of matter. In the highest sense "God is a Spirit" (John iv, 24), and in the New Testament the word appears in naming or referring to "the Holy Spirit" more frequently than in any other connection. More exceptional, both in the Old Testament and in the New, are those passages in which the reference is evidently to that personal spirit in man which is directly conscious of reason, feeling, and volition. Thus Zechariah (xii, 1) speaks of Jehovah "forming the spirit of man within him." The psalmists speak of the spirit "making diligent search" (lxxvii, 6), and being overwhelmed within them (cxlii, 3). Eccl. xii, 7, the spirit of man is said to "return unto God who In |