The treatment to remove the excess of the salt of soda is the same as that described above; or the mixture may be directly neutralised with lime, the salt of lime decomposed by a salt of soda, sulphate or carbonate, and the sulphate of soda may be separated by crystallisation from the soda salts of the sulpho-conjugated acid. The disulpho-anthraquinonate of soda, heated with double its weight of potash, soda, or a mixture of the two alkalies, is transformed into alizarin.-Bull. Soc. Chim.de Paris. Except for the use in a perfectly definite sense, and in a few instances only, of the index letters π, σ, and x, as above referred to, the whole of the thirty-three alcohols are expressed by comparatively simple formula, which manifest their constitution fully, in symbols intelligible, without any new convention, to everyone. NEW PROCESS FOR PREPARING SULPHOCONJUGATED ACIDS. By M. CH. GIRARD. THE preparation of sulpho-conjugated acids requires in most cases the use of fuming sulphuric acid, or of a mixture of such with common sulphuric acid concentrated to 66° B. The presence of the fuming or Nordhausen acid is necessary to obtain disulpho-conjugated compounds, and those of a higher degree. We may replace with advantage-both as regards cost, facility of working, and amount of yield-the Nordhausen acid with anhydrous bisulphate of soda, either alone or mixed with variable quantities of the ordinary sulphuric acid of commerce. One of the chief advantages of the anhydrous bisulphate of soda lies in its mode of decomposition during the reaction, which has the effect of gradually setting at liberty anhydrous sulphuric acid. The author has prepared, by heating under pressure, and at temperatures varying according to the nature of the substance to be obtained, a mixture of anhydrous bisulphate of soda, concentrated sulphuric acid of commerce, and carbides of the aromatic series, such as benzin, toluen, xylen, and their homologues, naphthalin, anthracen, phenol, cresylol, quinons, and anthraquinons; with alkaloids such as aniline, diphenylamin, and their homologues, the operation may be performed at the ordinary pressure. To obtain the disulpho-conjugated acids of benzin he heats under pressure for four hours to 200° to 250° a mixture of The excess of the salt of soda may be removed either by exhausting with 3 or 4 litres of alcohol, or by letting the mass drain exposed to the air; the sulpho-conjugated acids being deliquescent, flow away, whilst the salt of soda remains in the funnels in a crystalline state. The excess of sulphuric acid is easily removed by neutralising with lime, filtering, and evaporating. To prepare the salt of soda he employs either the sulphate of soda collected or the carbonate of soda, filtering to separate the calcareous precipitate. The solution, evaporated to dryness, yields the soda salt, which latter, on heating to 240° with double its weight of potash, yields resorcin. To obtain the sulphoconjugated acids of anthracen or of anthraquinon he heats under pressure between 260° and 270° for five to six hours, at 66° B. | REPORT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEMICAL ARTS (Continued from p. 167.) SUCH machines have been recently made by Eigel and Lesemeister, of Cologne. The duty of a machine of the kind described must, on the supposition that the sulphuric acid expended is recovered by means of concentration, be estimated at a very high rate. From a calculation which certainly was only approximate it would appear that 17 kilos. of ice are produced per 1 kilo. coal used in concentrating the acid. If, in the continuous action of the apparatus, the concentrated acid running off could completely exchange its heat with the dilute acid to be introduced, the effect would be greater by one-third. This result considerably exceeds that of the ammonia machine. The manufacture of ice on this principle would offer certain advantages if the apparatus were differently arranged, since in its present form it is not suitable for lump ice. Perhaps instead of pure water a saline solution might be evaporated, which would be cooled down far below zero, and into which, as in other machines, vessels containing water might be plunged, and the latter might thus be indirectly frozen. The air-pump would require to be put in action only once in order to exhaust the air of the internal space. To open it would be needless, since the sulphuric acid can be introduced, and removed by means of pumps. III. Production of Cold by Expansion. If a gas is compressed the mechanical power applied is converted into heat and the temperature rises. If equal volumes of different gases at a similar initial pressure are compressed to the same extent, a gas of lower specific heat increases in temperature more than one of higher specific heat, and that in a potentiated manner since its particles, in the first place, assume a higher temperature by an equal increment of heat, and secondly, since the hotter gas possesses a greater tension and opposes more resistance to compression, whence more heat is evolved. Different gases of equal initial temperature and tension, when compressed to an equal volume, not only attain unequal temperatures, but unequal pressure. The following table shows in what proportion atmospheric air of mean tension increases in temperature if compressed at an initial temperature of 20° C. Pressure in atmospheres.. I Temperature .. 20 85 130 163 .... If a hot compressed gas is allowed to re-expand, always under full pressure, the heat is transformed into mechanical power, and a fall of temperature ensues in the same measure as the rise during its compression. If a hot and compressed gas is cooled down and then expanded, it falls below the initial temperature, and very great degrees of cold can be attained. Thus air at 2, 3, 4 atmospheres, cooled down to 30° C., and allow a to expand to i atmo "Berichte über die Entwickelung der Chemischen Industrie Wa.. "end des Letzten Jahrenends." sphere yields respectively the temperatures of -25°, — 53°, | these Dr. Odling's system did not provide names. He -70° C. It is pre-supposed that the air, like steam in an engine, works outwardly; if it rushes into an empty space the temperature of the whole mass experiences no change, since the heat lost by the initial expansion is reproduced by the impact of the molecules against the sides of the vessel. If the air drives before it a pressure smaller than corresponds to its own tension, e.g., if, having been strongly condensed in a receiver, it escapes into the open air its fall in temperature is less than as stated above. On these principles depends the application of air to the production of cold and the preparation of ice. (To be continued) PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. CHEMICAL SOCIETY. Professor ANDREWS, F.R.S., in the Chair. AFTER the minutes of the preceding meeting had been read and confirmed, and the presents announced, the names of Messrs. J. Davidson, D. H. Richards, and W. J. Hannah were read for the first time. Mr Cornelius O'Sullivan and Dr. Rudolph Messel were balloted for and duly elected Fellows of the Society after their names had been read the third time. The first paper, "On the Manufacture of Sulphuric Anhydride," by Dr. R. MESSEL and Dr. W. SQUIRE, was read by the latter. The speaker, after giving a sketch of the history of the manufacture of sulphuric acid, described their process for preparing the anhydride. The vapour of ordinary sulphuric acid is passed through a white-hot platinum tube, whereby it is almost completely decomposed into water, oxygen, and sulphurous anhydride: the mixed gases, after passing through a leaden worm to condense the greater portion of the water, are completely dehydrated in a leaden tower filled with coke, over which a stream of concentrated sulphuric acid is allowed to trickle. The dry mixture of oxygen and sulphurous anhydride is now passed through platinum tubes heated to low redness, and containing fragments of platinised pumice, when the gases re-combine to form sulphuric anhydride, which is condensed in a series of Woulffe's bottles, considered Schorlemmer's arrangement of the paraffins unsatisfactory and unscientific, and in its place he would propose to divide them into three groups, represented by the general formulæ CH2(CnH2n+1)2; CH(CnH2n+1)3; and C(CnH2n+1)4 respectively, the various members of which could be distinguished by the letters of the Greek alphabet in the manner before explained. He desired to see some system of nomenclature which would not only serve to distinguish isomeric compounds, but would assimilate the different series as much as possible. The one he had proposed served to indicate the position which the isomeric compounds occupied with reference to their physical properties. Dr. ODLING said that he had, in the first place, to express both his appreciation of the friendly tone of Dr. Armstrong's criticism, which he would endeavour to imitate in his reply, and also his obligation to him for bringing the subject forward. He objected himself to Dr. Armstrong's proposal, that it dissociated strictly analogous alcohols by assigning to them a difference of prefix, whilst it associated with one another by an identity of prefix alcohols of the most diverse character, normal and iso- primary, secondary, and tertiary. It moreover dissociated the alcohol from the acid and paraffin into which it was oxidisable and reducible, by a difference of preflx, and accorded a common prefix to those which were not so related to one another. He considered the arrangement of isomeric bodies according to their boilingpoints to be inapplicable in the case of isomerides, including (say) aldehyds, ketones, olefine alcohols, olefine ethers, olefine oxides, &c., without prior classification of the isomerides according to their several characters, and similarly with regard to normal and iso- primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols. He objected, further, that any seeming consistency in Dr. Armstrong's seriation of alcohols was dependent on this seriation being conducted according to a special artificial system which it was assumed would coincide with the seriation by boiling-points; but which he (Dr. Odling) contended would not accord, unless, for example, the relationship between similar primary butyl and propyl derivatives were reversed in the case of secondary butyl and propyl derivatives, and unless, whilst some alcohols differed from their progenitors in boilingpoint by about 20° C., other alcohols-derived in precisely the same way-differed from their progenitors in boilingpoint by about 40° C. For his own part he considered that the a ßy system of notation was applicable only as a temporary expedient in the case of compounds in the course of being assimilated into the body of investigated and systematised substances. He believed Dr. Armstrong's formulæ for the alcohols to be confusing, in respect of the number and variety of indices employed; to be cumbrous out of proportion to the information afforded with regard to any particular alcohol; and to fail in indicating the close mutual relationship of some, and the great mutual alienation of other iscmeric alcohols. Dr. ARMSTRONG remarked that the authors had spoken | He further objected to Dr. Armstrong's proposal with reof the Nordhausen acid as a solution of sulphuric anhy-gard to the nomenclature of isomeric acids. To designate dride in sulphuric acid, but it was in reality a definite these acids as primary, secondary, and tertiary, was to compound, which yielded definite salts and also a cor- use the above epithets in an entirely different sense from responding chloride. It might perhaps be called pyro- that in which they are applied to alcohols. In this last sulphuric acid. sense all acids are primary, and their varieties are dependent on the variety of paraffin from which they are derived; moreover, inconvenience would result from referring the alcohols to a mono-carbon alcohol, and the acids to a dicarbon acid. As regards his own proposals, Dr. Odling contended that the reference of the known paraffins to four types was perfectly well established, and that any familiar mode of designating the different isomeric parafins should indicate to which of these classes the paraffin belonged, and that any prefix such as "iso" applied to the members of some one class of these paraffins should be confined exclusively to them, and to their derived alcohols, aldenyds, acids, &c. He recognised fully that any paratfin of of a more complex class might be formulated The CHAIRMAN thanked the authors, and, in allusion to a remark of theirs on the difficulty of condensing sulphuric anhydride when mixed with air, said that, in the case of a mixture of equal volumes of air and carbonic anhydride, the latter did not condense even at a most enormous pressure, but on lowering the temperature to o° C. the carbonic anhydride was condensed. In reply to an observation by Mr. Spiller, Dr. SQUIRE said the Nordhausen acid made in Bohemia was of two strengths, but all the samples he had examined had a sp. gr. considerably below 1.900. The adjourned discussion on Dr. Armstrong's paper, "On Systematic Nomenclature," was then proceeded with. The AUTHOR said he might perhaps be allowed to make a few additional remarks. At the last meeting he had scarcely been able to do justice to Dr. Odling's paper, chiefly from want of diagrams 1 illustrate it. These he had now prepared, and from an inspection of them it would be evident that in the highest series there would be several isomeric, iso-, neo-, and meso-parafins, and for 178 Necessity for Organisation among Chemists. and that the paraffin sometimes called di-isopropyl, although belonging to the class of meso-paraffins, might very well be formulated on the type of the iso-class. He further considered that in the description of the monad radicles derivable from the paraffins, it was advisable to give to the secondary radicles derived from the normal paraffins a different prefix from that assigned to the primary radicles derived from the iso-paraffins, and also to accord a distinctive prefix to the tertiary radicles of the iso-paraffins, the prefixes which he suggested being "pseudo and "kata" for the secondary and tertiary radicles respectively. With regard to the designation of the isomeric alcohols, he thought it was advisable to indicate whether they were derived from normal or iscparaffins, and whether they were primary, secondary, or tertiary derivatives. He further thought it would be advisable to give to the secondary and tertiary alcohols substantive names, such as the name ketone given to the secondary aldehyds, the names he suggested being pseudol and kathol respectively, whilst the primary alcohols might be designated as methols; these terms being used in the same manner as, and included in, the common designation of carbinol. Lastly, whilst admitting that every variety of formulation was admissible to illustrate special relations, he considered that particular mode of formulation to be most generally advantageous in which a set of alcohols, glycols, olefines, aldehyds, ketones, acids, nitriles, &c., should be expressed by similarly constructed formula, which would show at a glance the relations of the several bodies to one another, and especially their common relation to the paraffin from which they are derivable. Dr. ARMSTRONG said that at that late period of the evening there was no time to reply to Dr. Odling's remarks, but he might say there was less difference between their views than might at first sight appear. He might observe, however, that he desired to use the Greek letters as prefixes merely to show the order in which isomeric bodies would be arranged, having regard to their physical properties. The CHAIRMAN then adjourned the meeting until Thursday, May 4th, when the following papers will be read:-"On Glycerin-Phosphoric Acid and on Fermentation," by Dr. THUDICHUM and Mr. KINGZETT. "Note on the Occurrence of Benzene in Rosin' Light Oils," by Mr. W. SMITH. "On the Action of Water and Various Saline Solutions on Copper," by Mr. T. CARNELLY. New Reactions of Biliverdin," by Dr. THUDICHUM. And "On Fermentation," by Dr. THUDICHUM and Mr. C. T. KINGZETT. CORRESPONDENCE. THE NECESSITY AMONG "On some FOR ORGANISATION CHEMISTS. To the Editor of the Chemical News. SIR, I have taken great interest in the discussion opened up by Dr. C. R. Alder Wright, upon the necessity for organisation among chemists. I am also greatly surprised at the little response it has called forth. CHEMICAL NEWS, April 28, 1876. The wretched position to which professional chemists are drifting, and the low opinion held of analytical chemistry, is well illustrated by the advertisement to which you refer in your article in the CHEMICAL NEWS (vol. xxxiii., p. 89). I observed a few months ago, in a mining paper, an advertisement, emanating from a spelter works in Glamorganshire, for a chemist (?) "competent to make the analysis of zinc ores," and who could keep accounts-salary £2 a week. From enquiry and experience I believe I shall not be far out when I state that of chemists in works about 50 per cent receive salaries under £100, and 80 per cent under £150 per annum. It is perfectly true, as Dr. Wright observes, most of these have merely risen from "bottle-washers," and who have learnt to determine certain substances by mere ruleof-thumb, and are perhaps more adept, from constant experience, at that one thing than even a skilled chemist of more extensive knowledge; but if given any different substance or element to determine, are totally at sea, and entirely incapable of working by induction. It is a very general thing, in many commercial laboratories, for youths to be employed entirely at one certain thing; for instance, at an "Assay Office" with which I am acquainted one boy is kept to do all the weighing, another all the H2S precipitations, so that in a single determination the manipulation will have passed through three or four different hands, and the results are then returned as gospel: if they should happen to turn out correct it is by a happy dispensation of Providence,-if not it cannot be helped; and this is done by those holding high positions as commercial analysts. But then, Sir, the rate of fees quoted by these people will not admit of doing honest work. Will it pay a man (of any position above that of bottle-washer) himself to do an analysis of an iron ore, determining Fe, Mn, Š, P, Ca, Si, Al, and Mg, for £3 10s. (which is the advertised price of many firms),-to do it in duplicate, and be able (as advised by Fresenius) to swear to his results? and yet how many brokers and manufacturers will quibble over £5 for an analysis, seemingly forgetting that every £1 saved by employing an inferior chemist may entail a loss of £100 on themselves. Take the case of copper ore. imagine very few commercial assayers or analysts bother to determine the copper within o 25 per cent over or under the actual quantity present, and yet this would represent 4s. per ton; and as this ore is often bought in parcels of 1000 tons, would represent a loss or gain in the parcel of £200. I I am sure that if a guild or similar institution were established all our best chemists would become members. There seems many varieties of opinion as to how, and in what subjects, the examination should be held. They should certainly be such, and only such, as would be required to see if a candidate is capable of practical chemical work, and to perform correct and trustworthy qualitative and quantitative analysis. I certainly do not see the necessity (as suggested by one of your correspondents) for Latin, German, and French to form any of the subjects. A man may be possessed of great skill and experience, and yet not know a word of any but his own language. The subjects should be confined strictly to practical and theoretical chemistry, and not go into subjects of general education. It is not for a University degree. I would beg to suggest that the candidate for membership of the guild should fulfil the following conditions:1. That he shall prove satisfactorily to the examining body, or other constituted authority, that he has received his chemical education under a person of professional status and ability, or in some recognised institution. 2. That he is engaged in practical chemical work, and is following chemistry as a profession. 3. That he can pass a practical examination in analysis, qualitative and quantitative, and in theoretical chemistry, equal, say, to the papers given to the NEWS students of the School of Mines who are competing | ORGANISATION FOR ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS for the Associateship. To the Editor of the Chemical News. SIR,-I cannot allow this subject to pass from the notice of your readers without publicly recording my vote in its favour. It is beyond doubt that such a step is not only desirable, but absolutely necessary, to secure the position due to the profession. Medical men, lawyers, pharmacists, and even druggists, are very properly obliged to show due qualification before they can practise or commence business, but anyone can call himself an analytical chemist without possessing the meanest claim. I say it is time analytical chemists established a locus standi against such Of course the latter would be the main thing necessary for a candidate to pass, and should be of a sufficient stiffness to prove that he had received a thorough chemical education, and was not a "bottle-washer" chemist. This third section might also be divided into organic and inorganic, either of which might be taken by the candidate, as, considering now the wide range of chemistry, one of these is quite sufficient for a man to make his speciality, and it would be unfair if he intended to confine himself to inorganic (or metallurgical) chemistry, as his sole profession, to make him pass a strict examination in organic, and vice versa. We have a parallel in the medi-intrusion. During my practice I have heard, in Law Courts cal profession, as in physician and surgeon. The diploma granted might specify which it was granted for. It may be urged against this that it would cause complications, but even if it did it would soon cease to exist. We have a parallel among several of the allied professions; for instance, we have civil, mechanical, and mining engineers: besides it would show who was the most proper man to consult on any special subject, so that a client would not go to, say, Dr. Percy to consult him regarding "previous sewage contamination" in a sample of water, nor to Mr. Wanklyn to consult as to the commercial value of an argentiferous copper ore. Besides, if he could, the candidate may pass in both inorganic and organic; but what I wish to urge is the unfairness of mixing the two. From the general tone of your correspondents' letters they seem to insinuate that this guild is to be formed to support commercial analysts, but I think it should certainly embrace works' chemists, who require quite as high a degree of skill as our commercial friends, considering that they generally have to work against them, and the operations often occurring in manufactures involving chemical questions. The diploma of the guild would also at once place a chemist seeking for an appointment in a more favourable position than now, when he has to contest with "bottlewashers" and students fresh from the class-rooms, besides enabling him to command a salary at least equal to that of a collier in full work, instead of the wretched salaries many receive-not being more than that paid to a yard foreman or inferior clerk. I can assure you, Sir, that many skilled artizans in the various Birmingham trades can earn far higher salaries than the income of many of our professional chemists. To quote a case:-I am acquainted with a hammerman at a Steel Works in Glamorganshire who received a standing salary of £400 per annum. I perfectly agree with you, Sir, that those persons rejoicing in a sufficient private income had far better devote themselves to original research than degrade themselves and the profession by doing work at wretchedly low fees. What would be thought of a barrister who pleaded causes at half-a-crown a head? I imagine he would be very soon ejected by his profession; and the cases are exactly similar. I shall be glad to hear that a movement is being made by the metropolitan chemists towards the formation of this guild, and can assure them that they will meet with the hearty co-operation of their provincial brethren. Could they arrange a meeting, and let a report of the minutes be sent to every F.C.S.? Subscriptions might be invited to defray expenses of same. But unless something is done the profession of analytical chemist will degenerate to such an extent as not to be worth following, especially as it is becoming combined with that of clerk, foreman, and messenger. Perhaps we shall soon see the public analyst also performing the office of parish beadle. In conclusion I would beg to observe, to brokers, manufacturers, &c., in the words of a celebrated physician, that advice that costs nothing is worth nothing."-I am, &c., C. H. ALLDRED, F.C.S. Burry Port, S. Wales, April 10, 1876. and elsewhere, more ridiculous statements, if possible, than those recorded by Mr. A. H. Allen (CHEM. NEWS, vol. xxxiii., p. 94). Undoubtedly there will be some difficulty at the commencement of such an organisation, but the difficulties will increase with time; therefore action cannot be taken too soon. I look upon the general suggestion of Mr. C. H. Piesse (CHEM. NEWS, vol. xxxiii., p. 116) with general favour. A board consisting of our recognised leading Professors would give general satisfaction, in first of all passing those for members who have unquestionable qualifications, and then considering the merits-by examination or otherwise of all the analytical chemists in practice, making it compulsory afterwards for certain qualifications to be attained before being allowed to practise as an analytical chemist. Promising my share towards preliminary expenses to Public Analysts' Laboratory, 10, Victoria St., Wolverhampton, PS. I think Mr. Allen will find himself and all public analysts exempt from jury service by being public officers. |