leave his apprenticeship or who gave him work, whether cognizant of the breach of contract or not.1 Some chambers of industry specify damages for breach of contract in their required normal contracts, but most merely note that agreement on damages is necessary." There is no limitation to the length of apprenticeship in factories. In handwork apprenticeship must last usually three and not to exceed four years. Within the limit the length may be set by the chambers of industry with the approval of the higher administrative authorities for single industries or branches, and after the guilds and industrial societies concerned have had a hearing. The chambers of industry are further authorized to release apprentices in individual cases from the restrictions of the established period." They may make the period dependent on individual efficiency or on attendance at a trade or improvement school. Almost all chambers of industry make regulations concerning the period of apprenticeship. Between the different chambers the regulations differ considerably. Of 68 chambers answering an inquiry of Coelsch, 9 made no regulations, 37 set the minimum at three and the maximum at four years, while 15 required three years uniformly. The regulations seem to make the period too uniform, as between the several trades; and the chambers do not provide sufficiently for individual exceptions, the latter largely to avoid disputes with employers. Coelsch thinks that the period averages too long, on the whole, and regards three to four years for the difficult and two to four for the easier trades as desirable. Where the chambers of industry do not regulate the matter the guilds, free or compulsory, may do so with certain limitations.' At the close of the period of apprenticeship the employer must furnish to the apprentice a certificate (Lehrzeugnis) stating the trade, length of the apprenticeship, the proficiency reached in knowledge and ability, and the conduct of the apprentice. 10 This is to be given whether the apprentice has done well or not, if he complete the apprenticeship, and whether he wishes it or not." The local authorities are to freely certify to the certificate (merely attesting the employer's signature 12). Where guilds or other representatives of employers exist, their apprentice letters (Lehrbriefe) take the place of the employer's certificates. 13 Toward and at the close of his apprenticeship the apprentice, if he be in handwork, must be given opportunity by his employer to take the journeyman's examination (Gesellenprüfung)." This includes the making of a journeyman's piece. The law requires the handwork 1 R. G. O., sec. 127g, pp. 416-417. 2 Coelsch, p. 112. R. G. O., sec. 130a, pp. 423-424. Coelsch, p. 57. Ibid., p. 57. Coelsch, pp. 57, 58. 7 Ibid., pp. 59, 60. Ibid., pp. 60–62. Ibid., p. 62; R. G. O., sec. 81a, 3, p. 254. 10 R. G. O., sec. 127c, p. 413. 11 Coelsch, p. 81. 12 Ibid., p. 80. 18 R. G. O., sec. 127c, p. 413. 14 R. G. O., sec. 131c, pp. 424-425. apprentice to take this examination and his employer and master to hold him to it. The chambers of industry in some regions, notably in Prussia and Bavaria, reiterate and try to enforce this requirement.2 To have passed the examination involves advancement to the journeyman. But as a matter of fact many handwork apprentices never take the examination, and though the chambers of industry would like to force them to do so, the existing law is in this respect too weak for the purpose. Factory apprentices need not take the examination, and very few do so. The celebrated Krupp Steel Works in Essen seek to have their apprentices take the examination, which they conduct themselves, for the sake of indicating the degrees of individual progress made, but they do not require this, nor advance the journeyman any the less if he omit it. The State central authorities can require the journeyman's examination to be passed by all who receive certificates from teaching workshops, institutions for industrial education, or examination authorities whose certificate qualifies for Government service." An examination committee is to be established for every compulsory guild, but for free guilds only when a chamber of industry empowers them to hold examinations. So far as examinations in individual industries are not provided by guilds, institutions of instruction, or examining authorities, the chamber of industry shall arrange such examinations. The examining committee consists of a chairman, chosen by the chamber of industry, and at least two assistants, chosen as a rule for three years, and of whom one-half must be journeymen who have passed the examination. The examination must show that the apprentice is able to command in his industry the necessary dexterity and ability with sufficient certainty, and also that he is informed concerning the value, preservation, and handling of the raw materials to be worked with, and the recognition of their good and bad qualities. The procedure of the examination is determined by the superior administrative authorities with the agreement of the chamber of industry. Bookkeeping may be required, in addition to the above-stated subjects. For admission to the examination the apprentice must furnish his certificate of apprenticeship, and the certificate of attendance on an improvement or trade school, if such attendance was required of him. The examining committee note the passing of the examination on the apprenticeship certificate or apprenticeship letter. Its chairman may appeal from the committee's decision to the chamber of industry. The State central authorities may amend these regulations for the journeyman's examination, but may not lessen the requirements for passing it, as stated above. 10, 7 IR. G. O., sec. 131c, pp 427-429. 'Coelsch, pp. 239-240. Dr. Schoppacher Handwerkskammer Sekretär, Dusseldorf. R. G. O., sec. 131, pp. 424-425. 'Ibid., sec. 131a, p. 426. Ibid., sec. 131b, pp. 426-427 If an apprentice fail to pass the journeyman's examination, and the examining committee regard this as the fault of his employer, the apprentice may receive supplementary training from another employer, and the former employer be required to pay for his pecuniary loss.1 By national law (not industrial law) all those who pass a specified examination in any branch of handwork may obtain the one-year volunteer military certificate. This examination is chiefly theoretical and is so hard that a young man passing it at, for example, 18 years of age, must be as able as any master workman. Naturally, but few take this examination. If too many apprentices are held by an employer, so that their training is endangered, the lower administrative authorities may compel the dismissal of some, and limit the taking on of more than a certain number. The dismissed apprentices, if their contracts be written, may demand an apprentice certificate and damages from their employer. The national senate (Bundesrat) may further regulate the maximum number of apprentices that may be held in establishments in a certain branch of industry. If such regulations are not made by the Bundesrath, they may be made by the several State central authorities. So far as these authorities have not legislated on the subject, the chambers of industry and guilds may, for those only who are under their charge (i. e., only handworkers, ordinarily), regulate the number of apprentices permitted. In 1904, seven years after these provisions became law, neither the Bundesrat nor any State central authorities had made use of this regulative power. Most of the chambers of industry have done so, however, some regulating all industries alike, and some making special regulations for special trades. Many of these regulations seem too general and unsuited to varying conditions in different industries and with different employers." How they have worked out in practice it is yet too soon to judge. Few employers' associations or trades unions have sought to regulate the maximum number of apprentices in their trades. In but few individual cases and in but few trades is there any excess of apprentices beyond what is desirable. The chamber of industry reports show a lack of journeymen and apprentices in the country and smaller cities, and the employment offices show a great lack of apprentices. So the attempts of the chambers of industry at regulation of the maximum number of apprentices seem to be on the whole not greatly needed.10 1 Handwerkskammer, Mannheim. Gustav Koepper, Sekretär, Handwerkskammer, Coblenz. R. G. O., sec. 128, pp. 417-418. Ibid., sec. 130, p. 423. Erhebungen a. a. O. S., in Coelsch, p. 119. "Coelsch, pp. 128-130. 7 Ibid., pp. 114, 127. 10 Ibid., pp. 119, 121, 123. CHAPTER VIII. THE SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. German industrial schools took their rise in the Sunday afternoon and evening schools which had existed for several centuries in some parts of the country, dating back in one Baltic district as early as 1569.1 They were used to supplement the imperfect general education of the working boys and girls. Attendance was made compulsory up to the age of 18 or even until marriage, but this provision was not enforced. The Sunday afternoon schools were at first chiefly concerned with religious teaching, but later they became general continuation schools, concerned merely to reiterate the lessons taught in the common schools, with perhaps some slight advance. Still later more and more industrial and commercial training crept in, as also into the evening schools. The schools in their early days were far from successful on account of the lack of rooms in which to meet and of equipment, the ill-assorted nature of the pupils, and incompetency of the teachers. The industrializing of many of these schools improved matters somewhat, but the fact that throughout almost all Germany to-day strong attempts are being made to abolish evening and Sunday instruction in favor of day instruction, even for apprentices at work, indicates that the drawbacks were serious. Many of the Sunday schools gradually differentiated themselves into drawing, trade, commercial, mechanical, and art schools." In Prussia the medieval restrictions on trade and industry were abolished and industrial freedom (Gewerbefreiheit) attained in 1810, almost half a century previous to the change in the other German States. Apprenticeship declined under industrial freedom and extensive competition, and the need of supplementary means of training was felt. Industrial improvement schools were established, meeting evenings and Sundays at first, and these struggled on until the industrial law of the North German Union in 1869 gave localities the right to require compulsory attendance of all male workmen under 18 years of age. In 1874 the final factor of success was added in annual Prussian appropriations and an official statement of principles for the conduct of such schools. 1 Sadler, M. E., editor: Continuation schools in England and Elsewhere. Manchester, 1907, ch. 8, p. 520. 2 See preface. Spec. con. reps., vol. 33, p. 13. English Bd. of Educ. Educational Pamphlet No. 18. Compulsory Continuation Schools in Germany 1910, preface. • Eng. Bd. Educ. Educ. Pamph. 18, preface, p. 3. The States of central and south Germany, after the establishment of the German nation, felt the need of better cultural and civic training for their masses. They accordingly established general improvement schools, whose sessions were at first on Sunday and in the evenings. Bavaria had had improvement schools with compulsory attendance for both boys and girls since 1803. The new schools did not succeed very well until the curricula were remodeled to center around the vocations of the pupils,' and the schools thus became primarily industrial schools. They have remained, however, more cultural and less technical than the Prussian schools. From the early general Sunday and evening schools, and the industrial Sunday and evening schools which became differentiated from. them, or were established in the light of their example, arose during the nineteenth century a great variety of industrial schools ranging from the improvement schools for youthful workers to the highly advanced and scientific technical high schools (Technische Hochschulen). The majority of these industrial schools were established by private individuals, guilds, trade-unions, merchants' associations, and towns. This fact, and the loosely united condition of the German States during most of this development, resulted in great diversity in the types of schools and much wasted effort. The nineteenth century was preeminently the period of experimentation in industrial schools. After the German nation was founded these schools, stimulated by the remarkable industrial and commercial development, went forward with leaps and bounds. But they are still essentially local in their control and support, and there is not as yet a unified system under central control. Indeed, any system of industrial schools can be spoken of, as in the title of this chapter, only in the most general way, and for lack of a better term to indicate their general features and relations. So far as unity exists, it is due chiefly to the action of the National and of the State Governments, and to the forces of example and imitation, these latter working largely through the association of the German industrial school men (Verband deutscher Gewerbeschulmänner). All German children are required by law to attend the common school (Volkschule), or an accepted substitute, from the age of 6 or 7 to that of 14 years. This common school is much like our own, differing chiefly in that religion is given a prominent place, and a slight fee is charged; it is divided into separate classes, though with equally good teachers, for pupils of different pecuniary rank (by charging different school fees); and like German schools in general, teaches fewer subjects than we do, but these with greater thoroughness. Some 1 Sadler, p. 518. Eng. Bd. Educ. Educ. Pamph. 18, preface, pp. 3, 4. ♦ Ibid., p. 18. Ibid., pp. 12-16. Ibid., pp. 15, 134. With minor exceptions. Ibid., p. 5. |