ers say the boy is not worth much the first two or three years and that their profit occurs chiefly in his last (usually fourth) year of service. Thus the monetary difference to the boy may be in a typical case equal to two and a half (or three) marks a week foregone the first year, three (or four) the second, and four (or five) the third, or 475 (or 600) marks total, plus 150 marks paid to the master, or 625 (or 750) marks total ($150 or $180). Such shortening of apprenticeship usually occurs in the case of a boy whose parents have money enough to advance him thus more rapidly, especially if he has continued in school beyond the common school.

All classes of people in Hamburg are, as a whole, favorable to the industrial schools; teachers and directors of the regular schools, employers and guilds, unions and workmen, parents and pupils. The parents of all classes are most heartily in favor of them, and it is from the parents that the greatest demand for their establishment has come. Not all individual employers are favorable, but as a class they are so in each trade and in all trades collectively. The consensus of opinion in the entire city is decidedly favorable to the industrial schools.

Their expense is not felt as a heavy burden by the taxpayers, but as money well spent, though the schools are expensive. The city (State) pays all the expenses of these schools, outside of the small sums received for tuition from pupils. The evening and Sunday schools require 10 marks ($2.40) tuition a half year, the higher schools naturally more (the technikum 72 marks ($17.28) a half year). Neither guilds nor employers aid the schools financially; nor do they supply materials or models, as in some other German cities. In some cases individual masters serve without pay on the school boards. The modern tendency to specialization in all industries, with its resulting narrowing shop training, is met in some degree by the industrial schools in this manner: The schools teach somewhat of all branches of each trade in the school for that trade, attended by all apprentices who learn but a branch of the trade in their work. Thus they are prepared to understand and later supervise work involving all the branches, even though they be skilled in but a single branch. In those industries where success depends most largely on the technical training, as in those where the artistic element enters largely (decorating, cabinetmaking, etc.), the employers are most decidedly in favor of industrial schools, and are willing to release their apprentices to attend them in the daytime, during working hours, considering the sacrifice well worth while, in view of the greater skill secured. In the most highly organized industries, however, such as shipbuilding (even though in some of these, as machine and ship building, industrial education such as provided in these schools is of

1 Herr Schulinspektor A. Kasten.

great value) the employers are as yet usually unwilling to release their apprentices during working hours to attend industrial school. They claim that this disorganizes their factories too much, and that the result is thus not worth the sacrifice.

In the handwork industries also, wherever the benefit from industrial education is not great (chiefly the less skilled handwork), the employers usually consider the sacrifice not worth while and are unwilling to release their apprentices to attend industrial school during working hours. To sum up, the upper and lower grades of industries, in point of skill required and complexity of organization, desire industrial education for their apprentices, but, in the main, only during the apprentice's own time, while the middle grades (including some in the highest grade of skill, but not highest in organization) desire this education for their apprentices enough to release them for it during working hours, when they can receive it to the best advantage.

To look back over Hamburg's industrial schools, we see that she has excellent higher schools, and good lower schools. These lower schools are well adapted to the needs of industry, but greatly need. the requirement of compulsory attendance to enable them both to reach the minority, at present neglected, and to require daylight attendance in all possible classes. Compulsory attendance, accepted and successful through large portions of Germany, will probably in time be adopted also in Hamburg, and will add to the efficiency of her already good system of industrial schools.

CHAPTER X.

THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS OF BERLIN.

Berlin, the capital of the German Empire, had in 1905 a population of about two millions, which in 1912 had been increased by the annexation of suburbs to three and one-half millions. The city is thoroughly modern and cosmopolitan. Over half of her population are engaged in industries embracing almost all branches. Among these the metal-working industries are very important, especially the manufacture of machinery and electrical goods. The breweries rival those of Munich in extent.

The city possesses an elaborate system of industrial schools, many of them having attained their present form in comparatively recent years. In 1905 the administration of all the industrial and improvement schools was placed under a newly established commission for the city trade and improvement schools. The city system of industrial schools includes: (1) Voluntary improvement schools (chiefly commercial); (2) compulsory improvement schools; (3) trade schools for apprentices; and (4) middle (höhere) trade schools. The great Royal Technical High School is located in Charlottenburg, a suburb continuous with Berlin. This great institution, specializing in research in applied science, and attended in 1909-10 by some 5,300 students from all parts of the civilized world, represents, with its fellows in other parts of Germany, the pinnacle of German industrial education. I am concerned chiefly with the foundations, however, and so turn to the humble, but no less important, improvement schools. The voluntary improvement schools, of which there were 33 in 1909-10, are open, some to boys, some to girls, and some to those of both sexes. They are chiefly commercial in nature, and some wholly A few have industrial and housekeeping courses for girls, such as design drawing for tailors and for lingerie sewing, repairing, ironing, machine sewing and machine embroidery, tailoring, and millinery. Attendance on these voluntary improvement schools does not free from the obligation to attend a compulsory improvement school, where such obligation exists.

so.

The compulsory improvement schools (Pflichtfortbildungsschulen) are 10 in number and have their headquarters in as many chief buildings scattered through the city, though spreading over freely into the common school and other buildings where necessary. Some of these schools, as also some of the voluntary improvement schools,

1 Die Deputation für die städtischen Fach- und Fortbildungsschulen.

were once guild schools, since taken over by the city. Others have been city schools since the year 1799, though not becoming specialized as industrial and commercial schools until the period beginning in 1873. The last stage in their development was the requirement in 1905 by city ordinance, passed under the permissive provision of the National Industrial Law,' of attendance of all male industrial and commercial workers on the compulsory improvement school, from the time of their release from common school until their seventeenth year. As stated in the table in chapter 8, pages 83 and 84, throughout most of Prussia attendance on improvement schools is compulsory only by local ordinance. The Landtag had in 1911 a bill under consideration to require compulsory attendance throughout the State, in towns of 10,000 or larger population as well as in cities.

The compulsory improvement school must furnish instruction and require attendance at least four hours a week, but not over six. The classes for unskilled workers extend through four hours for skilled workers, and for boys in commercial work through six hours weekly. The hours set are usually in afternoon or evening though sometimes in the morning, and never later than 8 in the evening. Some classes of skilled workers meet twice a week for three hours at a stretch, some once for six hours. The classes for unskilled workers are usually in the evening.

The subjects of instruction are three: German, arithmetic, and drawing. There are no workshops in these schools. The pupils, all of whom are apprentices or unskilled boy workers, are grouped in classes according to their trades. The unskilled workers are grouped together and receive instruction more general in nature than that given to the apprentices. Their numbers are about one-third of the whole enrollment. Each of the 10 schools has classes for certain groups of trades. Thus the school which I visited had 14 classes for metal workers, including 8 for wrought-iron workers, 5 for engravers and die sinkers, and 1 for molders. It had 42 classes for the art industries, including 10 for engravers, 9 for braziers, 13 for lithographers, etc., and 10 for bookbinders. It also had 12 classes for the unskilled workers, not separated closely according to their occupation. The total number of pupils in this school in the winter of 1909-10 was 2,940.5 Many of the commoner trades have classes in a number of different buildings or in almost all. Where there are but a few apprentices of a trade in a district, classes are formed of

1 R. G. O., sec. 120; cf. ch. 8, p. 85.

With minor exceptions.

Der gegenwärtige Zustand und die Nächsten Aufgaben des Berliner Fortbildungsschulwesens. Stadt schulrat Dr. Carl Michaelis, 1911. Also: Übersicht über das Fach- und Fortbildungsschulwesen der Stadt Berlin, 1909-1910, pp. 61-65.

Of the second school district.

Übersicht, pp. 69–71.

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those in related trades, or related branches of a trade. Those in commerce are usually in ungrouped classes, though there are some classes for certain branches, as for those in businesses selling iron products.

The compulsory improvement schools of the whole city had in May, 1909, separate classes for the following trades and groups of trades 1 (the number of classes of all grades indicated after each trade): In the building trades, 82—including masons, plasterers, and roofers (15); oven makers (3); woodworkers (45); painters (8); glaziers (6); stonemasons (5). Among metal workers, 234-including in common classes (57); ironworkers (60); machine builders (42); mechanicians (57); plumbers (11); molders (7). Of the art trades, 89; made up of classes in common (7); engravers and chasers (12); brass founders (10); lithographers (15); those in bookmaking industries (12); photographers (3); gold workers (5); tapestrers (15); sculptors (6); lacquerers (4). In clothing industries, 31; including tailors (21); furriers (4) shoemakers and saddlers (6). In the food industries, 41; constituted by bakers (23); confectioners (3); waiters and cooks (15). Of barbers and hairdressers, 15; consisting of classes in common (12); wigmakers (3). Of commercial workers, 158; made up of classes in common (149); druggists (4); iron goods dealers (5). Of unskilled workers, 335, all in classes in common; and in certain miscellaneous trades, 17; including dentists (4), musicians (2), and pattern makers (3). The total number of different sorts of classes was 39, practically all of these having a class or classes for each of the three successive years of the course. The total number of separate classes was exactly 1,000, and the average number of pupils to a class was 31.14.

The German taught is identical with study of industry (Gewerbekunde), which means that in each class the teacher instructs the apprentices in technical, legal, civic, and other matters pertaining to the trade concerned, incidentally improving their oral expression. The students then write in their note books from memory an account of the subject just treated, and the teacher thus is able to correct their written expression. In some few classes, where the need is greatest, a little physics is taught by lecture and demonstration under the name of German or study of industry.

The arithmetic is a continuation of that of the common school, but taught with special reference to each trade or group of trades. The drawing is partly free hand, partly mechanical, and is also specialized to meet the special needs of the several trades. The type of instruction in general, and the ground covered, shows clearly the origin of these schools as variations from the older general continuation schools, whose function was to conserve and repeat the training of the common school, and if might be, to add slightly to it. As a con

1 Übersicht, pp. 96-99.