LITERATURE,

In the general sense of the word, comprises the entire results of knowledge, and mental activity, expressed in writing; but in a narrower sense, it is used to denote the department of elegant letters, excluding works of abstract science and mere erudition. In this limited view it comprehends languages, particularly Greek and Latin, grammar, etymology, logic, rhetoric, poetry, history, criticism, bibliography, and a description of the attainments of the human mind in every sphere of research and invention. The history of literature represents the development and successive changes of civilization, so far as these are exhibited in written works, and embraces the history of the literature of special ages or countries, and of the separate branches of literature, as poetry, rhetoric, philology, and so forth.

LANGUAGES.

The classification of the different languages of the earth into a few great families is due to the science of comparative philology, and is of recent origin. Till the latter end of the last century the preference as to the antiquity of language was usually given to the Hebrew, but a striking improvement of linguistic study is dated from the discovery of the Sanskrit, the ancient language of the northern parts of Hindustan, in the latter part of the last century. A belief in an affinity in languages and a separation of them into certain great groups or families then arose.

The languages of the world are divided into four great branches; viz., the ARYAN, or IndoEuropean, the most important; the SEMITIC, the TURANIAN, and the DRAVIDIAN.

The TURANIAN family, called also the Tataric or Altaic, includes the numerous and widely different languages of the Manchoos, the Mongols, the Turks (in Asia and Europe), the Magyars (in Hungary), the Finns (in Russia), and a multitude of other tribes.

The DRAVIDIAN includes the Tamil and the dialects in Ceylon and the islands off Asia, etc. The SEMITIC includes the Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic and Ethiopic, Basque (in the Pyrenees),

etc.

The INDO-EUROPEAN, to which extensive family the English language belongs, is divided into six principal branches.

I. The Indian branch, represented by the Sanskrit, which has now ceased to be spoken, but is the mother of the Hindustani, Bengali,

Mahratti, and the other numerous dialects of modern India.

II. The Medo-Persic branch, at the head of which is the Zend, in which the Zend-Avesta is composed, and the cuneiform inscriptions of Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes. Next follow the Pehlevi, of the Sassanian dynasty; the Parsee, in which the national poem of Ferdusi is written (A. D. 1000), and lastly the modern Persian.

III. The Celtic branch, divided into two dialects, the Gaelic and the Cymric; the former comprising the Irish or Erse, the Scottish Gaelic or Highland-Scotch, and the Manx of the Isle of Man; and the latter Welsh, the Cornish (now extinct) and the Armorican of Brittany.

IV. The Græco-Latin branch, comprising the two ancient classical languages, and the so-called Romanic languages, derived from the Latin, which are six in number; namely, the French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian, and the Roumanish or Romanese spoken in the Grisons in Switzerland.

V. The Teutonic branch, which comprises all the different German and Scandinavian dialects.

VI. The Slavonic branch, divided into three principal classes: 1. The Lettic, comprising the Lithuanian, the Old Prussian (now extinct), and the Lettish, the language of Kurland and Livonia. 2. The Western Slavonic, comprising the Polish; the Bohemian or Tchechian, spoken in Bohemia; the Slovakian, spoken by the Slovaks in Hungary, and the Wendian, spoken in Lusatia. 3. The Eastern Slavonic, comprising the Old Slavonic, preserved in the translations of the Bible made by Cyrillus in the ninth century, and its derivate dialect, the Bulgarian; the Russian, Servian, Croatian, and Slovinian.

The Teutonic branch of the Indo-European family of languages is divided into two great branches, the German and Scandinavian.

The GERMAN is divisible into three principal dialects, the Moso-Gothic, the Low German, and the High German, the two latter being so called because the Low German is spoken by the inhabitants of the low or flat country near the shores of the German Ocean, while the High German belongs to the higher country in the interior.

1. The MSO-GOTHIC, the most easterly of all the German dialects, has long ceased to be spoken, but is preserved in the translation of the gospels by Ulfilas.

2. The Low GERMAN comprised the following dialects: (1) Anglo-Saxon, which was cultivated with great success in England, and in which the second most ancient specimens of the Germanic language are preserved. (2) The Old Saxon, so called to distinguish it from the Anglo-Saxon in England, formerly spoken in Westphalia. (3) The Frisian, now confined to a small district in Holland. (4) The Dutch, the present language of Holland. (5) The Flemish, spoken in many parts of Belgium.

3. The HIGH GERMAN comprises the Old High German, from the seventh to the eleventh century; the Middle High German, from the twelfth century to the Reformation, and the New High German, which since Luther's time has been the literary language of Germany.

The SCANDINAVIAN branch, of which the most ancient language is the Old Norse, the language of Norway, is represented by the Icelandic, which was carried into Iceland by the Norse colonists in the ninth century and which continues to be spoken on that island with little alteration. On the Continent the

Old Norse is represented by the Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian, of which the last has now become a mere patois.

The following table exhibits the relationship of the different Teutonic languages:

Scandinavian.

(i) Danish.
(ii) Swedish.
(iii) Norwegian.

The English Language is the descendant and representative of the Anglo-Saxon. It has lost very much of the inflection and very many of the words which belong to the parent language; and on the other hand it has borrowed words largely, to the extent even of half its vocabulary, from other languages, especially the French and the Latin. Yet all the inflections that remain in it, and most of its formative endings, the pronouns and particles, and in general the words which are in most frequent and familiar use, have come to it from the Anglo-Saxon. All the constituents of the English Language as it now exists are presented in a condensed form as

follows:

1. Every sentence and every line of poetry. Examples. Forget others' faults. How bright the day! What is fame? Custom forms us all. "Time is the warp of life; oh! tell

The young, the fair, to weave it well." 2. All proper nouns, and titles of office, honor, and respect.

Examples. Henry the Fowler, Emperor of Ger many; Robert Roe, Esquire; His Honor the Mayor; Square; the Superior Court of the City of New York. Elizabeth Barrett Browning; the Red River; Union

3. All adjectives formed from proper names. Examples.-African, Italian, Welsh, Ciceronian. Also adjectives denoting a sect or religion. Examples.- Methodist, Puritan, Catholic.

direct and lively manner; nct where sex is 4. Common nouns, where personified in a merely attributed to an inanimate object.

Examples-Then War waves his ensanguined sword, and fair Peace flees sighing to some happier land. But, the sun pursues his fiery course; the moon sheds her silvery beams.

5. All appellations of the Deity. The personal pronouns Thou and He standing for His name are sometimes capitalized.

Examples.-The Almighty; the King of kings; the Eternal Essence; Jehovah; the Supreme Being; our Father.

In the standard editions of the Bible, the pronouns, when referring to God, are never capitalized, not even in forms of direct address to the Deity.

6. The first word of a complete quoted sentence not introduced by that, if, or any other conjunction.

"Success makes villains But, Thomson says that "success makes vil

Examples.-Thomson says,

honest.' lains honest."

7. Every noun, adjective, and verb in the title of books and headings of chapters. Ancient Philosophy"; Cousins" "Lectures on the True, Examples.- Butler's "Treatise on the History of the Beautiful, and the Good."

8. Words that denote the leading subjects of chapters, articles or paragraphs.

A word defined, for instance, may commence with a capital. Do not introduce capitals too freely under this rule. When in doubt use a small letter.

9. The pronoun I and the interjection O. 10. Words denoting great events, eras of history, noted written instruments, extraordinary physical phenomena and the like.

Examples.-The Creation; the Confusion of Lan. guages; the Restoration; the Dark Ages; the Declara

tion of Independence; the Aurora Borealis.

12. The months of the year, and the days of the week. The names of the seasons, however, should not generally be capitalized, although it is customary with some authors.

13. The words North, South, East, and West, and their compounds, as Northwest, when they signify a section of country. Also adjectives derived therefrom. This class of words should

not be capitalized, however, when merely denoting direction.

Punctuation Points. tion Points are as follows:

Paragraph Brace

A SEMICOLON is placed before as, to wit, viz., namely, and that is when they introduce examples or illustrations.

Example.-Every solid has three dimensions; namely, length, breadth, and thickness.

Place a semicolon at the close of a sentence which by its terms promises another sentence. Example.-"Tic-tac, tic-tac, go the wheels of thought; our will cannot stop them; they cannot stop themselves; sleep cannot still them; madness only makes them go faster; death alone can break into the

case.'

Acute Accent
Grave Accent
Circumflex Accent
Tilde, or Circumflex
The Long, or Macron
The Short, or Breve
Diæresis

Cedilla

Asterisk

Dagger, or Obelisk
Double Dagger

A Section
Parallel

Punctuation is the art of dividing composition by points or stops for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense and relation of the words, and of noting the different pauses and inflections required in reading.

The usage of to-day is not that of the past and will not be that of the future.

The following rules are the most important and are compiled from the best modern authorities:

THE PERIOD must be placed after every declarative and imperative sentence and every abbreviated word.

Examples.-Obey your parents. Virtue is the only nobility. We write Jas. for James, N. Y. for New York, No. for number, George I. for George the First.

After all abbreviations.

Example.- Mdse.- Amt.- Ph. D.-LL. D.
After numbers written in the Roman notation.
Example.-XIX.-Psalm XC.

A nickname which is not really an abbreviation is not followed by a period.

Examples.- Dave Bidwell; Sam Slick.

A COLON is placed after a sentence which formally introduces a distinct quotation.

Example. We are often reminded of this remark of Marshal Lannes : "Know, Colonel, that none but a poltroon would boast that he was never afraid."

The colon may be used to separate the great parts of a long complex sentence when the minor sentences therein are separated by the semicolon.

The colon is passing out of use, its place being taken by the dash, the semicolon, and the period.

Example.-The order, to fire, was given.

Set off by the comma a word or phrase that is independent.

Example.-To tell the truth, he was not at home. Set off by the comma a phrase that is out of its natural order.

Example.-Shifting his burden, he hurried on. Set off by the comma a particle used as an adjective.

Example. The water, expanding, burst the pipe. Set off by the comma connected words and phrases unless the conjunctions are all expressed.

Example." From the mountain, from the river, from the hill, and from the plain, we are sweeping to the rescue."

A comma is used before a direct quotation unless it is formally introduced. Greeley said, The way to resume is to resume.'

Set off by commas all parenthetical expressions and the following words when used as such; however, that is, indeed, of course, finally, again, first, second, also, therefore, yes, no, too, etc.

Example. He is, indeed, worthy.

Use the comma after as, viz., to-wit, namely, and that is, when they introduce examples. Example. We will promote the man; that is, if he is worthy.

The parts of a complex sentence should be separated by a comma when the auxiliary precedes the principal sentence.

Example. If the messenger calls, give him the letter. Separate by the comma a phrase or sentence used as a subject and its verb.

Example.-"That all men are created equal, is a selfevident truth."

Words used in direct address should be separated by the comma.

Example."Stranger, I am Roderick Dhu."

THE INTERROGATION POINT must be placed after every interrogative sentence, member, and clause; also after the interjections eh and hey implying a question.

Use the dash where there is an omission of such words as, namely, that is, as, introducing equivalent expressions and when letters or figures are omitted.

Example.-"Some wit has divided the world into two classes the wise and the otherwise." General M was present.

the final vowel of a prefix does not form a diphthong with the first vowel of a primitive;

but in this latter case a mark of diæresis is more appropriate.

Example.- Pre-engagement, re-establish [preëngage ment, reestablish.]

QUOTATION POINTS are used to inclose words quoted from an author or speaker, or represented in narrative as employed in dialogue. of thy youth." Example.-" Remember now thy Creator in the days

When the substance merely is given, and not the exact words, quotation points are un

necessary.

Matter within quotation points is to be punctuated just as if it stood in any other position.

When quotation points are needed at the end of a sentence, they come after whatever other point is required there if this point applies to the quotation alone, but before this point if it applies to the whole sentence and not exclusively to the quotation.

Example.-Pilate asked, "What is truth?" Where now is the "man of destiny"?

When a quotation incloses within it another the

let us

Example. We have learned the bitter lesson bury the past. PARENTHESES. Marks of Parenthesis are used to inclose words which explain, modify, or add to the main proposition, when so introduced as to break the connection between

dependent parts and interfere with the har

monious flow.

Example.- The Saxons (for they descended from the ancient Saca) retained for centuries the energy and morality of their ancestors.

BRACKETS.

Brackets are used principally in quoted passages, to inclose words improperly omitted or added by way of correction, observation, or explanation.

Example.-She is weary with [of] life.

In regard to the use of points before and after the brackets, and the punctuation of any sentence or clause within the brackets, the same rules apply that have been given in regard to the marks of parenthesis.

THE APOSTROPHE denotes the omission of a letter or letters, and the possessive case of nouns. Examples.-'Tis for it is; e'en for even; don't for do not; o'clock for on [the] clock. So in the possessive: hero's, Charles', men's, heroes', children's.

Pronouns never take the apostrophe in the possessive case.

THE HYPHEN is used to connect the elements of a compound word, when each retains its

own accent.

Example.-Castle-builder, father-in-law.

The hyphen is also used after a complete syllable at the end of a line, to connect the parts of a divided word; also to denote that

double marks, and the one included has only the single marks.

Example. It has been well said, "The command, 'Thou shalt not kill,' forbids many crimes besides that of murder."

If the inclosed or secondary quotation ends a sentence, three apostrophes will there come together, of which the first will belong to the inclosed quotation, and the other two to the original. When an inclosed quotation itself contains words or phrases that are quoted, those words or phrases have the double marks. Example.-"French says, What a lesson the word

"diligence" contains!"

When the sentence becomes more involved than this, the additional marks of quotation would create confusion, and may therefore be omitted.

THE PARAGRAPH is used to indicate a new subject of remark. The sign is retained in the Holy Scripture but in ordinary composition is indicated to the eye by beginning a little to the right of the marginal line of the page.

ACCENT MARKS are used to denote the proper pronunciation of words. They are:

The Acute [], which marks the syllable which requires the principal stress in pronunciation; or to denote a rising inflection of the voice, or a close or short vowel.

The Grave [] is used in opposition to the acute to distinguish an open or long vowel, or to denote the falling inflection of the voice.