Exclusive of the Bay with an area of about 200 square miles, and the neutral zone with an area of about 2,500 square miles, and population of 1,200,000. GREECE. Greece, a province of the Turkish Empire since the commencement of the 16th century, gained its independence in the insurrection of 1821-29, and by the Protocol of London, of February 3, 1830, was declared a kingdom, under the protection of Great Britain, France, and Russia. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg having declined the crown of Greece, on the ground that the boundaries proposed were insufficient, and especially excluded the island of Crete, it was offered to, and accepted by, Prince Otto of Bavaria, who ascended the throne January 25, 1833, being under the age of eighteen. He was expelled from the Kingdom, after a reign of 29 years, in October, 1862, which event was followed by the election, under the directing guidance of the three protecting Powers, of the present sovereign. The King, according to Art. 49 of the Constitution of 1864, attains his majority upon completing his eighteenth year. Before he ascends the throne, he must take the oath to the Constitution in the presence of the ministers, the sacred synod, the deputies then in the metropolis, and the higher officials of the realm. Within two months at the most the King must convoke the Legislature. If the successor to the throne is either a minor or absent at the time of the King's decease, and no Regent has been appointed, the Legislative Chamber has to assemble of its own accord within ten days after the occurrence of that event. The constitutional royal authority in this case has to be exercised by the ministerial council, until the choice of a Regent, or the arrival of the successor to the throne. The present sovereign is allowed, by special exception, to adhere to the religion in which he was educated, the Protestant Lutheran faith, but his heirs and successors must be members of the Greek Orthodox Church. The Constitution of Greece, adopted October 29, 1864, vests the whole legislative power in a single chamber, called the Boulé, consisting of 235 representatives, elected by manhood suffrage for the term of four years. Representatives must be at least 30 years of age, and electors 21. The elections take place by ballot, and each candidate must be put in nomination by the requisition of at least one thirtieth of the voters of an electoral district. At the election of 1881 there were 460,163 voters on the list, being 1 voter in every 4.3 of the population; the number who voted was 306,957, or 66 per cent. of the voters. The Boulé must meet annually for not less than three, nor more than six, months. No sitting is valid unless at least one half of the members of the Assembly are present, and no bill can pass into law without an absolute majority of members. Every measure, before being adopted, must be discussed and voted, article by article, thrice, and on three separate days. But the Legislative Assembly has no power to alter the Constitution itself; particular provisions may be reviewed after the lapse of ten years, with the exception of fundamental principles." The Chamber of Deputies, unless specially convoked at an earlier date, for extraordinary occasions, meets on November 1 (old style) of every year. The deputies are paid 2,000 old drachmai (equal to 1,800 new drachmai, or 72i.) each per session; for an extra session the allowance varies according to its length from 201. to 721. The Ministry is as follows: President of the Council and Minister of In terior. 66 Minister of Foreign Affairs. Minister of Worship and Instruction. Minister of Marine. Minister of War. Minister of Finance. benefit of the nation, or, finally, should pay taxes to the annual amount of 3,000 lire, or 1201. In 1904 there were 324 senators. By the electoral law of March 28, 1895, electors The Ministers of Finance and Justice are for deputies to the Lower House are all citinot members of the Cabinet. zens over twenty-one years of age who can read Religion. The great majority of the inhabitants of and write and who possess one or other of the the Kingdom are adherents of the Greek Orthodox following qualifications: they must have Church. Before the census of 1889 there were 1,902,800 reached a certain standard in elementary edubelonging to the Greek Orthodox Church; 14,677 other Christians, mainly Roman Catholics; 5,792 Jews; and cation; or must pay not less than 19.80 lirc in 24,165 Mohammedans. By the terms of the Constitution direct (including provincial) taxation; or, if of 1864, the Greek Orthodox Church is declared the religion of the State, but complete toleration and liberty of peasant farmers, must pay annually at least worship is guaranteed to all other sects. Nominally, 500 lire of rent, or be managers, with a share the Greek clergy owe allegiance to the Patriarch of Constantinople, though he now exercises no governing authority; he is elected by the votes of the bishops and optimates subject to the Sultan; his jurisdiction extends over Thrace and other countries, including Bosnia, as well as the greater part of Asia Minor. The real ecclesiastical authority, formerly exercised by him in Greece, was annulled by the resolutions of a National Synod, held at Nauplia in 1833, which vested the government of the Orthodox Church, within the limits of the Kingdom, in a permanent council, called the Holy Synod, consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens and four archbishops and bishops, who must during their year of office reside at the seat of the executive. The Orthodox Church has nine archbishops and eight bishops in Northern Greece; six archbishops and six bishops in the Peloponnesus; one archbishop and five bishops in the islands of the Greek Archipelago; and five archbishops and ten bishops in the Ionian Islands. There are 161 monasteries and nunneries, with in the profits, of farms on which direct (including provincial) taxes of not less than 80 lire are paid; or, being occupants of lodgings, shops, etc., in towns, pay an annual rent ranging from 150 lire in communes of 2,500 inhabitants to 400 lire in communes of 150,000 inhabitants. Non-commissioned officers and men in the army have no vote while under arms. Members of academies, professors, persons who have served their country under arms for two years, and numerous other classes are qualified to vote by their position. The number of deputies is 508, or 1 to every 64,894 of the population (census 1901). In 1904 the number of enrolled electors was 2,541,327, exclusive of the electors temporarily disfranchised on account of military service (26,056 There are (1892) 2.745 primary schools, 295 secondary in 1898). At the general election in November, schools, and a university. The total number of teachers is 3,680, and of pupils, 139,385, of whom 22,100 are females. 1900, the number of those who voted was There are 2 agricultural schools in Greece with, together, 1,593,886, or 62.7 per cent. of those who had 51 pupils. In 1895 an industrial and commercial school, with 40 teachers, was opened at Piræus to give instruc- the right to vote. For electoral purposes the tion in the industries relating to wine, spirits, beer, whole of the Kingdom is divided into 508 soap, perfumes, dairy-keeping, cattle and silkworm rearing, and in the duties of commercial clerks. In 1895 the electoral colleges or districts, and these again University of Athens had 2,987 students, of whom 967 into several sections. studied medicine, 1,327 law, 516 philosophy, 51 theology, 124 chemistry. Of the total number 604 were from abroad, chiefly from Turkey. 2,620 monks and 485 nuns. Instruction. All children between the ages of five and twelve years must attend school, but the law is not well enforced in country districts. Of the army recruits 30 per cent. are illiterate, and 15 per cent. can read only. ITALY. No deputy can be returned to Parliament unless he has obtained a number of votes greater than one sixth of the total number of inscribed electors, and than half the votes given. A deputy must be thirty elected are all salaried Government officials, as well as all persons ordained for the priesthood and filling clerical charges, or receiving pay from the State. Officers in the army and navy, ministers, under-secretaries of State, and various other classes of functionaries high in office, may be elected, but their number must never be more than forty, not including the ministers and the under-secretaries of State. Neither senators nor deputies receive any salary or other indemnity, but are allowed to travel free throughout Italy by rail or steamer. The present Constitution of Italy is an ex-years old, and have the requisites demanded pansion of the "Statuto fondamentale del by the electoral law. Incapable of being Regno," granted on March 4, 1848, by King Charles Albert to his Sardinian subjects. According to this charter, the executive power of the State belongs exclusively to the Sovereign, and is exercised by him through responsible ministers; while the legislative authority rests conjointly in the King and Parliament, the latter consisting of two Chambers--an upper one, the Senato, and a lower one, called the "Camera de 'Deputati." The Senate is composed of the princes of the royal house who are of age, and of an unlimited number of members, above forty years old, who are nominated by the King for life; a condition of the nomination being that the person should either fill a high office, or have acquired fame in science, literature, or any other pursuit tending to the The duration of Parliament is five years; but the King has the power to dissolve the Lower House at any time, being bound only to order new elections, and convoke a new meeting within four months. It is incumbent upon Protestant bodies. the executive to call the Parliament together annually. Each of the Chambers has the right of introducing new bills, the same as the Gov-hierarchy in Italy consists of 49 archbishoprics and 220 ernment; but all money bills must originate in the House of Deputies. The ministers have the right to attend the debates of both the Upper and the Lower House; but they have no vote unless they are members. The sittings of both chambers are public; and no sitting is valid unless an absolute majority of the members are present. The executive power is exercised, under the King, by a ministry divided into 11 departments, as follows: 1. President of the Council and Minister of Interior. 2. Minister of Foreign Affairs. 3. Minister of the Treasury. 4. Minister of Finance. other evangelical Italian Churches, and 30,000 to foreign well as the incomes of the clergy. In 1865, there were in Italy 2 382 religious houses, of which 1,506 were for men and 876 for women. The number of religious persons was 28,991, of whom 14,807 were men and 14,184 women. The mendicant orders numbered 8,229 persons, comprised in the above mentioned total. A law for the entire suppression of all religious houses throughout the Kingdom was adopted by the Italian Parliament in 1866. This law provided a small pension to all religious persons who had taken regular vows beporarily set aside for such monks, friars, or nuns as might wish to continue their conventual life, the inmates, when come down to a certain number, to be drafted off to another house, and so again, until all fi. Agri-dissolved. The lands and goods of these suppressed nally died out. All collegiate chapters were likewise bodies were appropriated by the State. 5. Minister of Justice and of Ecclesiastical fore January 18, 1864. Several monasteries were temAffairs. 6. Minister of War. 7. Minister of Marine. 8. Minister of Commerce, Industry, and culture. 9. Minister of Public Instruction. See and Church of Rome.-The "Statuto fondamentale del Regno" enacts, in its first article, that "the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion is the sole religion of the State." By the Royal decree of October 9, 1870, which declared that "Rome and the Roman Provinces shall constitute an integral part of the Kingdom of Italy," the Pope or Roman Pontiff was acknowledged supreme head of the Church, preserving his former rank and dignity as a sovereign prince. Furthermore, by a bill that became law May 13, 1871, there was guaranteed to His Holiness and his successors forever, besides possession of the Vatican and Lateran palaces and the villa of Castel Gandolfo, a yearly income of 3,225,000 lire or 129,0007., which allowance (whose arrears would in 1899 amount to 93,525,000 lire, or 3,741,0007.) still remains unclaimed and unpaid. Local Government. The two principal elective local administrative bodies are the communal councils and the provincial councils. According to the law of May 4, 1898, each commune has a communal council, a municipal council, and a syndic. Both the communal councils and the municipal councils vary according to population, the members of the latter being selected by the former from among themselves. The syndic is the head of the communal administration, and is a Government official; he is elected by the communal council from among its own members, by secret vote. Supreme Pontiff.-Pius X. was born at Riese, near Each province has a provincial council and a provincial Venice, June 2, 1835. Studied at Treviso and Padua ; commission, the members varying according to popu- ordained priest, 1858; chancellor of the diocese, 1875; lation. The council elects its president and other vicar-capitular, 1877; Bishop of Mantua, 1884; Cardinal officials. The provincial commission is elected by the and Patriarch of Venice, 1893. He is of modest and simcouncil from its own members. It conducts the busi-ple life. He was elected Pope on August 4, 1903, after ness of the province when the latter is not sitting. six fruitless ballots had been taken, by 55 out of 61 votes. Both communal and provincial councilors are elected He is not only deeply religious and a wise administrator for six years, one half being renewed every three years. but a thorough and deep scholar and a friend of art. He The communal council meets twice and the provincial took the name of Pius in order to continue the protest once a year in ordinary session, though they may be of his two predecessors against the occupation of the convened for extraordinary purposes. All communal papal States by the Italian government. electors are eligible to the council except those having an official or pecuniary interest in the commune. Persons not resident in the province, or having no solid interest in it, or who do not pay taxes on movable property, as well as officials in any way interested in the province, are ineligible to the provincial councils. Electors must be Italian citizens, twenty-one years of age, and able to read and write, be on the Parliamentary electoral list, or pay a direct annual contribution to the commune, of any nature, or comply with other conditions of a very simple character. The election of a Pope ordinarily is by scrutiny. Each Cardinal in conclave writes on a ticket his own name with that of the Cardinal whom he chooses. These tickets, folded and sealed, are laid in a chalice which stands on the altar of the conclave chapel; and each elector approaching the altar repeats a prescribed form of oath. Thereupon the tickets are taken from the chalice by scrutators appointed from the electing body; the tickets are compared with the number of Cardinals present, and when it is found that any Cardinal has two-thirds of the votes in his favor he is declared elected. Should none have received the needful number of votes, another process is gone through, viz., access-so called because any Cardinal may accede to the choice of another by filling up another ticket was chosen almost unanimously. He is regarded as the 264th Pope (or thereabouts) from St. Peter. Religion. The Roman Catholic Church is, nominally, the ruling State religion of Italy; but many Acts of the Legislature, passed since the establishment of the Kingdom, and more especially since the suppression of the Supreme Pontiff's temporal government, have sub-made for that purpose. The present Pontiff, Pius X., ordinated the power of the Church and clergy to the authority of the civil government, and secured freedom of worship to the adherents of all recognized religions. However, scarcely any other positive creed as yet exists but Roman Catholicism. At the census of 1901, of the total population about 65,595 were Protestants and 35,600 Jews. Of the Protestants, 22,500 belonged to the Waldensian Church of Piedmont; about 10,000 to the The rise of the Roman Pontificate, as an avowed temporal sovereignty, dates from the year 755, when Pepin, King of the Franks, gave to Pope Stefano III. the Exarchate and Pentapolis (or Romagna), conquered from the Lombards, to which Charles the Great added part of Tuscany and Sabina; and three centuries later Countess Matilda of Tuscany bequeathed to the Holy See her commanders-in-chief of the army. In 1861 ample territories. Rome, however, with the Roman duchy, came practically under the Pope's civil dominion one of them began to usurp the political in the days of Gregorio the Great (590-604). In 1860 the authority of the Emperor. His successors enwhole Pontifical State comprised an area of about 16,000 square miles, with a population of 3,125,000 souls; croached more and more upon the royal power thenceforth, until 1870, about 5,000 square miles and and continued to hold the country under mili692,000 souls. The Bishop of Rome, or Pope, by Roman Catholics tary rule until 1868, when the military class, accounted Vicar of Jesus Christ upon earth, and, in that or Samurai, put an end to the dual form of office, Successor of St. Peter, is the absolute and irresponsible ruler of the Roman Catholic Church, regarded government by abolishing the Shogunate and as the whole Christian Church here below. His ex cathe establishing the present Emperor as the real dra definitions on matters of faith or morals are held to be infallible, and against his judgments there is no sovereign. At the same time, upon the initiaappeal. Every baptized person is held to be spiritually tive of the Emperor and the Samurai, began the subject to him, and his jurisdiction over such to be immediate. The Roman Pontiff has for advisers and coad progress in western civilization, which is the jutors the Sacred College of Cardinals consisting, when marvel of recent history, and which has placed complete, of seventy members, namely, six cardinalbishops, fifty cardinal-priests, and fourteen cardinal- Japan among the foremost modern powers. deacons, but hardly ever comprising the full number. In January 1899 the Sacred College consisted of six carOn Feb. 11, 1889, a constitution, by which dinal-bishops, forty-five cardinal-priests, and five cardi-Japan became a limited monarchy in place of an absolutism, was promulgated. nal-deacons. The central administration of the Roman Catholic Church is carried on by a number of permanent committees called Sacred Congregations, composed of Cardinals, with Consultors and Officials. There are now twenty sacred Congregations, viz. : Inquisition or Holy Office, Consistorial, Apostolic Visitation, Bishops and Regulars, Council, Residence of Bishops, State of Regulars, Ecclesiastical Immunity, Propaganda, Propaganda for Eastern Rite, Index, Sacred Rites, Ceremonial, Regular Discipline, Indulgences and Sacred Relics Examination of Bishops, Fabric of St. Peter's, Lauretana, Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, Studies. Instruction.-The State regulates public instruction, and maintains, either entirely or in conjunction with the communes and provinces, public schools of every grade. Every teacher in a public institution maintained by the State, or by any other public body, must have the qualifications required by law; and in all public institutions not belonging to the State, the same programme must be followed, and the same rules observed. No private person can keep a school without having obJustice. In Italy, justice in penal matters is administered in the first instance by the Pretori, by the penal Tribunals, and by the Courts of Assize; on appeal, by the penal Tribunals, and by the Courts of Appeal. The highest court is the Court of Cassation, which confines itself to inquiring whether the forms prescribed by law have been observed. tained the authorization of the State. The ruler of to-day is said by the Japanese to be the 121st in direct and unbroken line of descent from Jirnuns, 660 B.C., the founder of the empire. By the Imperial House Law of Feb. 11, 1889, only the male descendants succeed to the throne and in case of failure of direct descendants the nearest male relative of the Emperor succeeds. By the constitution, the Emperor exercises the executive powers with the advice and assistance of a cabinet of ministers who are appointed by himself and are responsible to him. He can declare war, make peace, and conclude treaties, is commander-inchief of the army and navy, and determines the organization and peace standing of both. The Emperor opens, closes, and prorogues the Imperial Diet and dissolves the House of Representatives. Ile combines in himself the rights of sovereignty," and therefore exercises the legislative power with the consent of the Imperial Diet. The Pretori have jurisdiction concerning all delicts (delitti) punishable by imprisonment not exceeding three months, or banishment not exceeding one year, or by fine not exceeding 1,000 lire and all misdemeanors The Diet is made up of the House of Peers (contravenzioni). The penal Tribunals have jurisdiction in the first instance in offenses (delitti) (excepting of- and the House of Representatives, and meets fenses for which the Code establishes a minimum of five yearly. Every law must have the consent of years) punishable by imprisonment from ten months to ten years, or by fine exceeding 1,000 lire. The Courts of Parliament and it has control of finances and Assize, which in most cases have juries, have jurisdiction the administration of justice. It remains in inall proceedings concerning serious offenses(delitti)punishable by imprisonment for life (ergastolo) or by impris-session three months unless prolonged by imonment from ten to twenty-four years, or by minimum perial order. Both houses may originate imprisonment exceeding five years. They have exclusive jurisdiction concerning offenses against the inter- legislation but it must have the sanction of the nal and external security of the State, and all press of- Emperor. Each has the right to petition the fenses. Appeal is allowed to the penal Tribunals from the sentences of the Pretori, and to the Courts of Ap- Emperor on any subject. peal from those of the penal Tribunals. The Court of Cassation has power to annul, for illegality, sentences passed by the inferior Courts, and to decide questions of jurisdiction or competency. Italy is divided, for the administration of justice, into twenty appeal court districts, each of which is subdivided into tribunal districts, 162 in all, and these again into mandamenti, each with its own magistracy (Pretura), 1,548 in all. JAPAN. Prior to 1868 the Japanese Government, though nominally administered bythe Emperor, was controlled by the Shogunate. In the feudal period of Japan the Shoguns were the The House of Peers, consisting of 364 mem. bers in 1904, is composed of: (1) princes of the royal family of 25 years of age or overthey become members for life; (2) princes and marquises of 25 years of age and over-also members for life; (3) a certain number, not to exceed one fifth of three other classes of peers-counts, viscounts, and barons,-these members are elected by their own order for 7 years; (4) persons not peers who have achieved distinction in service of the state or as scholars; (5) persons over 30 years of age in GOVERNMENT AND LAW. each Fu and Ken (the 3 cities and 43 prefectures into which Japan is divided for administrative purposes) who are among the 15 largest tax payers, elected by the 15 and appointed by The President and the Emperor for life. Vice-President of the House of Peers are nominated by the Emperor from among the members, and President and Vice-President of the House of Representatives are nominated by the Emperor from among three candidates elected by the House. The House of Representatives in 1904 had The Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Minister of Finance. The Minister of the Army. The Minister of the Navy. The Minister of Justice. The Minister of Education. The Minister of Agriculture and Commerce. The Ministers are responsible not to Parliament, as is the English Cabinet, but to the Emperor. All laws and Imperial ordinances which relate to the affairs of state require the countersignature of a minister. The Privy Council deliberate upon important matters of state when they have been consulted by the Emperor. Marquis Ito, who drafted the Japanese Con- the instrument after that of Prussia. A believer In At the head of local administration in the Each To further carry out the principle of decentralization and self-government a system of local administration in shi (municipality), cho (town), and son (village) was established by Imperial Rescript, April 17, 1888, which came into effect April 1, 1889, and is to be applied gradually according to the circumstances and requirements of these localities. Religion. By the Constitution absolute freedom of not prejudicial to peace and order. The chief forms of religious belief and practice is secured, so long as it is with 12 sects and 32 creeds. There is no State religion, religion are-(1) Shintoism, with 12sects; (2) Buddhism, and no State support. The principal Shinto temples In 1902--Shinto temples, 190,754; priests, 83,471; stuare, however, maintained by State or local authorities. students, 9,286. There are also numerous Roman Cathdents, 1,225. Buddhist temples, 71,821; priests, 53,275; Instruction.-Elementary education is compulsory. The following are the educaolics, adherents of the Greek Church, and Protestants. The number of children of school age (6-14) on March tional statistics for 1903: - 31, 1903, was 7,366,504. INSTITUTES. Elementary schools Normal schools.. Number. Teaching Students and Pupils. The University consists of a University Hall, Colleges Agriculture. It is supported by Government. The bulk of Law, Science, Medicine, Literature, Engineering, and of the elementary and higher schools are also supported by Government and by local rates. One of the normal schools is for hign school teachers. In 1903 there were 67 libraries in Japan, with 821,670 periodicals, monthly, weekly, daily, were published. Of the periodicals 409,429,528 copies were issued. volumes. In 1902, 22,950 books of various kinds, and 1,328 |