604. The PRODUCTIONS OF THE HEAVENS are the phenomena of the solar system and of the fixed stars. The phenomena of the solar system are numerous and brilliant; those of the fixed stars scarce contain more particulars than their names and positions. The phenomena of the solar system are copiously recorded by several popular writers, particularly by Keil, Fergusson, Vince, La Place, and Herschel; and from them it appears that much progress has been made by the moderns in this curious branch of knowledge, beyond what was attained by the ancients.

Obs. The Ptolemaic system, which placed the earth in the centre, was generally received by the ancients; but it was reserved for Newton, in the end of the seventeenth century, to apply to the true system, which places the sun in the centre, the most enlightened theory ever devised by the mind of man, and to establish it by evidence which leaves no doubt of its truth, while it communicates such ample information as scarcely permits a desire to know more on the subject. (See my edition of Adams's Elements of Useful Knowledge, Book II.)

605. The PHENOMENA OF THE ATMOSPHERE relate to the elasticity, the altitude and weight of the air; to meteors, lightning, thunder, clouds, aurora borealis, snow, hail, rain; to the reflection and refraction of the rays of the sun, the rainbow, evaporation, dews, winds, &c., all which form. curious and interesting subjects of investigation, and of the greater part of which modern philosophy has collected the history, and has endeavored to ascertain the theory. (See Books IV. and V. of Adams's Elements of Useful Knowledge, fifth edition.)

606. The PHENOMENA OF THE EARTH relates to its figure, to its division into land and water, and to the productions which are found above and below its surface.

Illus. 1. Its spherical figure first merits attention, which, though contrary to appearance, and to the opinions of the vulgar, yet is so completely established by physical arguments and experiments, that no doctrine in philosophy is better supported.

2. Its division into land and water next attracts curiosity, and the large proportion which the surface of the water bears to that of the land.

3. The most remarkable phenomena of the water are the tides and currents, together with the innumerable varieties of animals and vegetables to which it affords life.

607. With regard to LAND, the first phenomena which summon observation, are the figures of the two great continents, extending far, from south to north, and affording many

varieties of climates, of soils, and of productions; the direction and magnitude of rivers; the extent, the altitude, and the figure of mountains; the great lakes of fresh water, the sands and rocks with which they are interspersed.

608. The situations and figures of ISLANDS next attract our notice, with their immense distances from one another, and afford curious and interesting inquiries concerning the manner in which they have been replenished with the animals and vegetables they contain.

Obs. All these phenomena belong to the geographer to recount and to explain; those we shall enumerate fall within the province of the natural historian.

609. The natural historian divides the productions of the earth into animals, vegetables, and minerals.

Illus. 1. Under animals, he comprehends all living creatures, from man to the meanest insect; and of every species he attempts to deliv er the history, as far as observation or information can afford him materials.

2. From animals, the natural historian proceeds to vegetables. He examines, and reduces into classes, all the plants which the earth produces.

3. From the surface, he descends into the bowels of the earth, examines the nature and position of the strata of which it is composed, and all the varieties of minerals which it presents to his observation. But natural historians have too often spent their time in idle disputes about classification, rather than in adding to the general stock of knowledge, and enlarging our acquaintance with the objects that exist.

Obs. The history of nature is, for these reasons, far from being complete; and the whole theory of general principles, which Lord Bacon calls the inductive part, and which he declares was totally wanting in his time, may still be affirmed to have advanced but a small space.

610. The history of the MECHANIC ARTS, or of those experiments and operations which are performed on the materials furnished by nature, forms the last branch of knowledge addressed to the memory.

Obs. 1. The phenomena of the fine arts will be better introduced under the branch addressed to the imagination.

2. It is vain, in this volume, to attempt a specification of the operations of the mechanic or useful arts. The materials about which they are exerted, are almost as numerous and various as are the different substances and combinations of substances which this earth presents. Should you desire more accurate information, you will have recourse to the works that treat exclusively on those arts, or to the practitioners, who can give you, in one half hour, a better insight into any particular art, than from books you could gain in the half of a year.

CHAPTER II.

HUMAN KNOWLEDGE-ADDRESSED TO THE UNDER

STANDING.

611. HUMAN KNOWLEDGE, as addressed to the UNDERSTANDING, is more extensive than that addressed to the memory, as it comprehends all the sciences, and the theories of all the arts. If we divide it according to its objects, it will resolve itself into two departments, the knowledge of MIND, and the knowledge of BODY.

Obs. This division would be very convenient, if mind and body were always found disunited, or were we not frequently obliged to contemplate them conjointly. But in all inquiries concerning human nature and human acquisitions, which constitute a large portion of this department of knowledge, mind and body are connected by the closest relations, and must be surveyed and examined in that compounded state. We are necessitated, for this reason, to adopt another division, more adapted to the actual arrangement of the objects in nature; and to consider knowledge as referring to mind unconnected with body, or to mind and body connected, or to body unconnected with mind; in other words, to consider it as referring to God and spirits, to man and human nature, to irrational animals, to vegetables, and to inanimate matter.

612. Of the world of spirits we know nothing, except what we learn from the experience of the operations of our minds, and from the general analogy which we are apt to infer subsists among spirits of all orders.

Obs. Between us and the great Spirit that made the universe, whom we cannot suppose to have any connection with matter, there may be, for any thing we know, infinite gradations of spirits, who may be more or less connected with body, according to their elevation in the scale of being. But of their natures, their endowments, their predilections, or their antipathies, we are altogether ignorant, and perhaps incapable of receiving information.

613. We are no less ignorant of the nature of the FIRST SPIRIT, particularly of what are called his incommunicable attributes, self-existence, eternity, omnipotence, and infinity. Though we must admit that these attributes constitute ingredients of the character of a perfect being, yet what the ingredients are, we can now form no adequate conception; and perhaps we never shall be competent to the task. The moral attributes of the Almighty, goodness, mercy, judgment, and veracity, are more adapted to human comprehen

sion, and form the ground-work of all the science we deduce from his nature.

Obs. We possess, indeed, no adequate idea even of these attributes; but theologians have deemed it fair to presume, that these attributes resemble in quality, though very different in degree, the virtues which are distinguished by the same names among men. The delineation of the doctrines and principles which result from these attributes, forms the science of natural religion, and part of the science of metaphysics.

We

614. NATURAL RELIGION comprehends the proofs for the existence of God, which result from the order, the beauty, and the design conspicuous in the works of nature. cannot controvert the reality of these qualities, nor suppose that the works of nature came into existence without a cause. No other solution can be admitted, than that they originated from some great, good, and wise Being, who made all beings, and who governs all nature; who can act from no motive, and upon no system, which embrace not general happiness; who has a right to command the obedience of every creature, and in obeying whom only a rational agent can expect happiness.

Obs. The metaphysical part of knowledge relative to God, contains discussions concerning the necessity of his existence, independence, infinity, eternity, omnipotence, which are usually reckoned a branch of Pneumatics. All these topics have been often and fully canvassed, and little now remains to be advanced upon them. The pneumatical branch, in particular, has afforded ample field for profound investigation, in which several writers of bold genius have indulged themselves in speculations, which transcend, perhaps, the compass of human powers, and which, therefore, should be relinquished as unprofitable. But they deserve a more severe censure, if they contribute, as they sometimes do, to controvert the principles of truth, and to defend the cause of skepticism.

615. The branches of knowledge relative to MAN, respect either the faculties of his mind, or the use he makes of these faculties, first, in acquiring and communicating knowledge; and, secondly, in acquiring happiness. The science which explains the faculties is a branch of Pneumatics; the sciences which teach the modes of acquiring and communicating knowledge, are denominated Logic and Rhetoric; and the science which delineates the road to happiness, has obtained the name of Morality.

616. PNEUMATICs form a general history of the faculties of the mind. The exertions of these faculties constitute the sciences of logic, rhetoric, and morality.

Obs. PNEUMATICS, and these sciences, for this reason, run into

one another; and in general views of human knowledge, it is unnecessary and inconvenient to contemplate them apart. We shall, therefore, proceed to the latter sciences, the survey of which will afford a place for exhibiting every thing valuable in the science of pneumatics.

617. LOGIC, or the art which delineates the progress of the understanding in the investigation of truth, contains, as we have seen, three parts-the doctrine of ideas, of propositions, of reasoning or proof. But on all these we have delivered our opinion pretty fully in the preceding Books, and shall not, therefore, now enlarge.

618. RHETORIC includes, at least presupposes, the arts subservient to retention and recollection; but its proper business is to unfold the art of communication.

Illus. The arts subservient to retention and recollection, are those of writing and printing; by which general knowledge is accumulated, present inquirers are made acquainted with the acquisitions of preceding ages, and may transmit their stores to posterity. The art of communication is conversant about grammar, composition, and criticism.

619. GRAMMAR divides words into classes, and treats of their inflections, their syntax, and their prosody.

620. COMPOSITION teaches us to communicate our thoughts with perspicuity and proper ornament.

621. CRITICISM informs us whether we have been successful. It qualifies us to read with discernment and improvement, and to determine the literary merit of the performances we peruse. (See my GRAMMAR of RHETORIC, Chap. II. Book V.)

622. MORALITY, or the science of happiness, may be divided into two great branches, one relative to individuals, and the other relative to communities.

Illus. 1. The branch respecting INDIVIDUALS comprehends many important topics of investigation; namely, that the inhabitants of such a compound constitution as is the human, consisting of reason, conscience, many passions and appetites, must result from an arrangement which permits gratification to each of these parts, in proportion to its dignity and consequence, and that this arrangement is recommended by the principles of virtue; that the laws of human conduct are manifestly marked by the nature of man; and that his constitution points out the will of his Creator, with the obligations to integrity which arise from this will; that the performance of the duties which man owes to his Maker, his neighbor, and himself, is not only dictated by obligation, but also by interest, because, in proportion as he deviates from these duties, he deviates from happiness; and that the best man is, and must be, the happiest, as virtue is the truest wis