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than the number of positive or negative unit charges associated with the chemical atom.

In view of this, it is convenient to extend the usual atomic symbolism of chemistry, by writing (+) for unit (atomic) positive and negative charges of electricity; and, for shortness, to distinguish ions-i.e. charged atoms or groups-from uncharged ones, by the addition of for each positive charge, and' for each negative. Thus, a silver ion is written Ag', a calcium ion Ca", the negative ion of sulphuric acid SO."; and we may make use of equations such as

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to indicate the assumption of a negative charge by a chlorine atom, and its conversion into a chlorion; or

NaNO1 = Na + NO'

to indicate the dissociation of sodium nitrate into a sodion and a nitrion.

To trace further the mechanism, Grotthuss put forward a suggestion, that the neutral molecules of dissolved substance, drawn into chains by the action of the electric force, exchanged partners in such a way as to leave the end links of the chain free. Thus

(CIH) (CIH) (CIH) (CIH)

four molecules of hydrochloric acid, orientated by the electric force, might, by a small change, become—

CI (HCI) (HCI) (HC) H

i.e. three molecules, together with a free hydrogen atom at one end (that of the cathode), and a free chlorine atom at the other. This crude picture of the facts was brought more into harmony with physical ideas in general by Clausius, one of the founders of the atomic theory. Clausius assumed that salt molecules in solution occasionally dissociate into a positively and a negatively charged portion. These ions, when formed, will, according to the laws of electrostatics, move; the cations in the direction of the electric force (from anode to cathode), the

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anions in the opposite sense. An ion may move as far as one of the electrodes and there give up its charge, and appear as a deposit of ordinary matter; but, if generated far in the interior of the solution, will more probably collide with other molecules. When this occurs the ion may travel on again free, or its collision may break up the molecule, and so form fresh ions; or it may, by colliding with an ion of the opposite kind, recombine. The decomposition and recomposition of molecules thus continually taking place, leave at any moment a certain fraction of the ions free; the electric force imposes— apart from their irregular heat motions-a uniform drift on all the ions that are free; and so, although no one ion need move very far, the current is conveyed by a steady procession of them towards the electrodes.

It is not necessary to suppose that the electric force causes dissociation of the salt molecules; rather, since there are cases of electrolysis which will start on the application of any electric force, however small, it is more natural to assume that the dissociation is spontaneous, i.e. it is due to ordinary chemical action, and exists in a solution apart from the application of electric force at all.

This leaves open the question how much of the salt is at any moment dissociated. It was at first tacitly assumed that only an infinitesimal amount existed in the ionised condition, so that the properties of the salt would, on the whole, be the same in the dissolved condition as in the solid. It was Arrhenius1 who first put forward reasons for supposing that an electrolyte might be largely, and in some cases almost completely, dissociated in solution. This view, though violently in opposition to the current chemical doctrine of the time, has continually gained support from experiment since, and may be looked upon as thoroughly established. We shall not attempt to give the arguments in its favour here, but shall adopt it as a working hypothesis, and allow the evidence in favour of it to accumulate, as the hypothesis is applied to various phenomena in turn.

The theory of atomic electric charges; of the convection of

1 Zeitschr. phys. Chem., 1. 631 (1887).

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such charges as constituting a current; and the consequent theory of electrolytic dissociation, seemed, a few years ago, at variance with electrical science in general. In the most familiar case of electric conduction along wires, the current seemed continuous, and it was hardly imagined that it could be of a convective character. The theories of electric action that had been developed always regarded that action as being continuous in space, so that the notion of an atom of electricity was quite foreign to them, and the explanation of electrolysis that suggests itself was looked upon with some doubt in consequence. This want of harmony has now been resolved, but not by any serious modification of views on electrolysis: it is the rest of electricity Th that has been converted to the atomic theory. Recent discoveries on the discharge of electricity through gases are the l cause of the change. It is found in dealing with electric currents through gases that a convective explanation is the only s tenable cne. There can be no doubt that positively and negatively charged particles-ions-exist in gases; that these move under the action of electric force; and that their motion en constitutes a current. Further, that such ions can be produced re within a gas in various ways: by the action of ultra-violet light, ofs Röntgen rays, etc. It has even been found possible to estimate qui the number of particles in a cubic centimetre of ionised air, and cons the mass and electric charge of each. It appears that the charge conveyed by particles in gases is identical conveyed by ions in electrolytes; but as regards m an important distinction. The ratio

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or the on is a

es in a gas rogen atoms.

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d the conse Positively charged particles as small as this are not known, and few years ap the hypothesis thus arises that there is only one kind of electhe most in tricity-the kind we conventionally call negative; that this e current se exists in the form of unit charges, atoms of electricity, or, as it could be they are now called, electrons; and that a negatively charged c action that body is one containing an excess of electrons, a positively being contin charged one, a defect; while in a neutral substance the electricity was trons are so in equilibrium with the rest of the matter that no ysis that sugg external electric field is produced. This is, in the barest outequence. line, the electron theory which is coming to be the basis of all Ot by any ser explanations of electrical phenomena.

est of electric

The charge on a single electron has been estimated at 7. Recent about 11 X 10-19 coulombs.1 If this is correct, the number gases are involved in the transport of one faraday of electricity must be th electric 96600 ÷ 1'1 × 10−19 = 9 × 103. In the case of an univalent on is the ion such as chlorine, one electron is associated with each positively atom, and therefore this is the number of atoms of chlorine in es: that a gram equivalent (35'4 grams). The number is so large that at their mot even in the most dilute solutions with which one has to deal, n be proda there must be a very large number of ions per cubic centimetre. Thus it has been estimated that in pure water 10-10 gram -violet light ole to estir equivalents are dissociated per cubic centimetre; there is nised air, consequently 10-10 equivalent of hydrogen ions; i.e. about at the elet 10-10 × 9 × 1023 = 9 × 1013, or ninety million million actual cal with charged atoms of hydrogen, and the same number of hydroxyl. In all the cases that occur in practice, therefore, the current is carried by an enormously great number of ions, and a statistical method of treatment is fully justified.

mass there

the case

Fut in seve

Since electrons possess a definite, though small, mass, the association of an e ric charge with matter must cause a ing ratio certain difference in its mass. Thus when we write the particles: equation

ones.

the char

er reason

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ess than the masses involved are of chlorine 35'4, of electrons o'001, SO that the mass of chlorions formed will be 35°401. Similarly, to give a positive charge to sodium means to take away an 1 J. J. Thomson, Phil. Mag., 5. 346–355 (1903).

es in a g gen ator

T. P. C.

disadvantage of requiring nearly two volts to work it, and so absorbing an appreciable fraction of the electric energy it

measures.

If a water voltameter be provided with a capillary tube, through which the gases have to escape, the pressure in the tube will be roughly proportional to the rate at which the gas is flowing, and may therefore be taken as a measure of the rate of flow of the electricity, i.e. of the current. Such an instrument, called an ampere-manometer,1 has occasionally been used instead of an ordinary ampere-meter.

The electrolytic process is used for the preparation of oxygen and hydrogen commercially.2 The vessels holding the electrolytes are of iron, as also the electrodes; 15 per cent. soda solution is employed, and as the water is electrolyzed away it must be replaced from time to time, distilled water being used to prevent accumulation of chlorides. The gases are collected separately in domes, under a pressure of about 60 mm. of water-greater pressure causes a risk of mixing. In order to reduce the resistance of the cell, it is packed in a wooden box with sand, so that the heat developed by the current keeps the temperature up to about 70° C. The voltage required is then only about 2.8 volts for each cell. The cells are constructed to take 600 amperes, and yield 220 litres of hydrogen and 110 of oxygen per hour, the purity of the gas being about 97 per cent.

2. Silver Voltameter. This is undoubtedly the most accurate of all. The weight of silver deposited from a solution by a measured current in a measured time has been determined several times, the most important determinations being those of F. and W. Kohlrausch 3 and Lord Rayleigh.* The former found 00011183 gm. per coulomb, the latter o'0011180. The greatest difficulty in such experiments is the measurement of the current in electromagnetic measure, i.e. in accordance with the definition of the ampere. Many subsequent experimenters

"Ostwald, Zeitschr. phys. Chem., 35. 36 (1900).

2 Zeitschr. f. Elektroch., 7. 857 (1901).

3 Wied., 27. I. (1886).

+ Phil. Trans., 175. 458 (84).

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