hood of man. Such practical effort ought to be encouraged and stimulated in every way.

Without entering upon a full consideration of this very large topic, it will be enough for our present exigencies that we indicate as a third line of work to be pursued in the elimination of evil, what may roughly be termed the Philanthropic.

IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTER.

From what has been said in the preceding chapters, it is already apparent that to remove evil choices and to prevent their formation is the most transcendent object which can be set before us for attainment in the work of abating what is termed moral evil. The surest way to secure the prevalence of good is that individuals in the community shall be good. Less directly, but still essentially, is the same thing of value for the extinguishment of physical evil as well, inasmuch as it is the good disposition that is the most active and effective for the relief of all kinds of human suffering from whatever cause proceeding.

That it is not an easy matter to teach human beings to derive their own pleasure from the happiness of others the history of the world abundantly shows. Character is of slow growth, and is affected by a thousand and one influences. But the results which have been actually attained in the way of modifying individual dispositions are very great, and give promise of still further development. Indeed, the influences at work in furthering this happy progress are now so manifold that we may reasonably expect to see the growth of the altruistic character in the future proceed in a relatively geometrical ratio, if only we can get rid of some of the obstacles and hindrances which proceed from mistaken ideas of what is really best, and from latent, disguised, but still persistent egoism. Herein lies the Problem of Evil as it presents itself to an age which theoretically believes in the altruistic, but knows not where and how to defeat the subtle enemy.

The Educational Method involves not merely instruction, but the actual formation of a capacity for self-control and self-development. This requires the subjection of egoism in the individual and the creation of an altruistic ideal of life for the inspiration and guidance of conduct. It need scarcely be remarked that the education of the family is the foundation of every other, for it is

the earliest practicable, and thus affords the best opportunity for dealing with the fundamental question of character. But since this is not always the best from a variety of causes, which we need not stop to enumerate, and since sometimes indeed it is altogether wanting, the importance of training and discipline in early life is so great that it has come to be regarded (and, I think, justly) as a necessity even for the community's security. John Stuart Mill, while advocating in general the laissez-faire system, among the exceptions which he makes points out the need of a state solicitude for education. 'Education, therefore,' says he, 'is one of those things which it is admissible in principle that government should provide for the people.' Although there are serious and fatal objections to the government making a monopoly of education, or imposing any particular system of education involving the support or rejection of particular religious or political theories, the interest of the community that its children should devote their minority, or the greater part of it, to education is paramount to almost every other interest, except an immediate question of life or death. Minors must be under the protection and guardianship of adults in any event; this is a necessity of all life. And the state, in justice to them as well as out of regard for the good of the entire body politic, ought to make the education of the young the subject of positive and comprehensive legislation.

In addition to what may be done in the family and by the state, the work should be supplemented by all the private and non-official agencies which can be brought to bear. The newspaper is the most effective educating instrument of modern times. Cheap standard literature is another valuable help. Associations for the discussion of social questions and for the dissemination of knowledge generally constitute another; institutions for reform another; the pulpit and the church, the lecture platform and the theatre, still another. So long as perfect toleration of the free expression of all opinions on all topics exists, the lines of progress are kept open and the forces of evolution are certain to do their work, but if we impede or abate those forces as they work through the spontaneity of the individual (save only for the necessities of the common freedom), then the counter-forces of disintegration and dissolution must prevail. In the failure to understand or regard this truth lies the secret of the decadence of nations.

1 Political Economy, Book V. chap. xi. 87.

CHAPTER XII.

HINDRANCES AND OBSTACLES.

We have now instanced four general methods, or classes of methods, of pursuing work for the elimination of evil; namely, the Industrial Method, working for the Control and Modification of Material Forces; the Political Method, aiming to establish Security and Justice; the Philanthropic Method, seeking to remove evil by direct Altruistic Effort; the Educational Method, which endeavours to effect the Development of Individual Altruistic Character. That these methods of the exercise of activity, or these spheres for activity, as we may be pleased to regard them, are not independent of one another needs no demonstration. Leading to the same end they supplement one another, and interactingly affect each other. The classification is perhaps a rough one, and the classes may not be mutually exclusive; but they indicate with distinctness four large groups into which the activities for the abolition of evil will naturally be thrown; and they seem to include all those activities. We shall find, I think, that everyone who is fairly. entitled to be called a promoter of the happiness of his kind has performed his task in one of these four lines. The man who improves the plough, or invents the cotton gin, or who facilitates commerce and industry by his output of money, benefits his race in the first method. The statesman, the judge, the administrator, or the soldier-each so far as he acts according to moral standardslabours in the second line. The member of the charity organisation, the contributor to the hospital, the friend of the poor, the sick, the forsaken, follows the third course. The teacher of mankind and the exemplar, who by his own virtues is a burning and a shining light, belong to the fourth class. The artist, so far as his work has a moral value, is also an educator. The cause is always one and the same; the spheres of labour and the directions of activity are manifold and ever varying.

In the chapter last preceding the paths necessary to be pursued

for increasing the general happiness have been barely indicated. The subject of each one of the subdivisions is of course large enough for a separate treatise. We have now settled upon the Nature of Evil (according to our lights), and determined the general principles which must guide us in seeking its elimination. We have also worked out two General Precepts to govern special and practical effort; and just now have indicated these four special lines of activity or spheres of labour. Inasmuch as it is not proposed to exhibit in this book a complete system of moral science in its details, much less to compass political and social science generally, but rather to present an introduction to all the practical sciences in showing what common principles and precepts determine both their ultimate ends and their methods in their social bearings, our object will now best be furthered by turning our course from positive exposition to negative discussion; for it is important to note what obstructions lie in the way of progress along the lines now disclosed, and what are the hindrances to the application of the precepts we have developed. The way must be cleared before we walk in it. I propose, therefore, to consider some of the present leading hindrances and obstacles to the achievement of the maximum happiness of the greatest number, which I believe is gradually working itself out along the four lines just remarked.

While it must be allowed that there is room for great differences of opinion upon this score, and therefore no claim can be made either that this part of the subject is exhausted in what we may say, or that everyone will agree with the author as to what are the chief obstructions, or, indeed, as to what are obstructions at all; nevertheless, on surveying the whole field, I shall venture to present what seem to me to be the chief and most serious impediments in the way of the elimination of evil. To the consideration of these the remainder of this work will substantially be devoted. In the course of the discussions to follow, much will be said in the way of illustration to show how the altruistic work must be prosecuted in the industries, in politics, in philanthropy, and in education.

The first obstruction lies in the attempt to subordinate human conduct in its relations to other human beings to an assumed supernatural system; in other words, to found a system of ethics upon a theology. This essay tends to create what was called in Chapter III. an Artificial Morality. The evil of such attempts, as well as the unscientific character of the positions assumed, it will be our aim to make clear.

The second class of hindrances which seem of sufficient prominence for special consideration arises from the unwarranted elevation of institutions, established as means for the promotion of happiness and as agents by and through which this happiness is to be worked out, to the position of ends in themselves. This brings up the controversy between Authority and Individualism.

The third class of obstacles is allied to the second. It is the product of the notion that because there is more power in combined effort of individuals, therefore social ends are more perfectly realised through the concentration of power in, and its application by, organisations. This is, typically, the question of Socialism.

Finally, we have ever present (and in the preceding hindrances as well) the root of all social evil—the formation and the tenacious retention by individuals of egoistic ideals of life, and consequently of egoistic dispositions. These are always reappearing, under new guises, with every successive advance of altruistic ideas, and constantly need to be exposed and guarded against. An examination of some of the most important phases of this individualistic egoism as it is shown in private life, with some remarks upon the relief against it, will serve also as a summing up of the whole work.

H