stition, darkness, and error of every kind, must
ultimately give way.-Dan. ii. 34, 35, and 44.
This is the stone cut out of the mountain with-
out hands, which is destined to evangelize the
earth, and to consummate the triumphs of the
Redeemer's cause.
R. H.

From the Eclectic Review.

Jewish instructors, and prosecuted with ardour the study of the Mosaic law and the Talmudical and Rabbinical commentaries. Afterwards he became a disciple of the Arabian philosopher and physician, Averroes, and made acquisitions in learning which raised him to distinction among the chief men of the age in which he lived. He excelled in the knowledge of the Hebrew and Arabic languages, and was not only well acquainted with these and some other oriental tongues, but was as proficient in the Greek language, and read, in their originals, the works of Plato, Aristotle, Galen, and others. He was well skilled in logic, and in the mathematical and medical sciences.

66

THE REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES; from the "More Nerochim" of Maimonides. With Notes, Dissertations, and a Life of the Author. By James Townley, Averroes was suspected of defection from D.D. 8vo. pp. 434. Price 10s. 6d. 1827. the M hainmedan faith, and, through the perMAIMONIDES has long been a celebrated name secution of his opponents, was removed from in Jewish literature. As a commentator and his office of chief magistrate at Cordova; upon expounder of the Mosaic writings, and as a which Maimonides, to avoid the perils to which, writer on Hebrew antiquities, this Rabbi holds from his devotedness to his preceptor, he found a distinguished rank; and his merit is support- himself exposed, withdrew from Spain, and reed by the testimony of the most learned authors moved to Egypt. He settled at Cairo, where who have treated on subjects of Biblical erudi- his genius and learning attracted the attention tion and Jewish legislation, who refer to him as of the Sultan Alphadel, who appointed him his an authority of the highest character and im- physician, and allowed him a pension. His portance. He was by birth a Spaniard, but is daily avocations are thus described by himself. sometimes described as of Egypt, in which "I generally visit the Sultan every morning; country he resided as physician to the Sultan, and when either he, or his children, or his and where his voluminous works were princi-wives, are attacked with any disorder, I am depally written. Of these, the More Nevochim tained in attendance the whole of the day; or is the most generally known and approved. It when any of the nobility are sick, I am ordered is a critical, philosophical, and theological to visit them. But, if nothing prevent, I_rework, intended to explain the difficult passages, pair to my own habitation at noon, where I no phrases, parables, allegories, and ceremonies sooner arrive, exhausted and faint with hunger, of the Old Testament, and comprises the expo- than I find myself surrounded with a crowd of sition of the grounds and reasons of the Mosaic Jews and Gentiles, nobles and peasants, judges laws, which Dr. Townley has detached and and tax-gatherers, friends and enemies, eagerpublished in the translation before us. Though ly expecting the time of my return. Alighting frequently referred to and copiously cited by from my horse, I wash my hands, according to British theological writers, it has never before custom, and then courteously and respectfully appeared in an English version. The work saluting my guests, entreat them to wait with was originally written in Arabic, and in the patience whilst I take some refreshment. Dinlifetime of the Author, was translated into He- ner concluded, I hasten to inquire into their brew by his disciple, R. Samuel Aben Tybbon. various complaints, and to prescribe for them A Latin version of the More Nevochim by Jus- the necessary medicines. Such is the business tinian, bishop of Nebis, was published in 1520 of every day. Frequently, indeed, it happens, at Paris; and in 1629, a new Latin translation that some are obliged to wait till evening; and executed by the younger Buxtorf, was printed I continue for many hours, and even to a late at Basil, with a preface, including a biographi- hour of the night, incessantly engaged in listencal account of the Author. To the version be-ing, talking, ordering, and prescribing, till I am fore us, Dr. Townley has added a copious appendix of notes and illustrations, and has prefixed, besides a brief memoir of Maimonides, Dissertations on, 1. The Talmudical and Rabbinical Writings. 2. The Zabian Idolatry. 3. The originality of the Institutions of Moses. 4. The Mosaic distinction of Clean and Unclean Animals. 5. The prohibition of Blood. 6. The typical character of the Mosaic Institutions. 7. The Leprosy 8. Talismans and talismanic Figures. 9. Judicial Astrology.

Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, or Maimonides, called from the initials of his name Rambam, was born at Cordova in Spain, in the year 1131, or, according to some, 1133, A.D. He appears to have received his earliest education under the immediate superintendence of his father, who sustained the office of judge among his own nation, and who was descended from illustrious ancestors. Subsequently, he placed himself under the tuition of the most learned

so overpowered with fatigue and sleep that I can scarcely utter a word." pp. 15, 16.

The time and the influence of Maimonides were devoted to the promotion of Jewish learning. Favoured by the Sultan, he was able to extend protection to the less fortunate of his brethren, and founded at Alexandria a seminary for his nation, which flourished for a period. Hie industry was great, and the chief fruits of it appeared in a digest of the Hebrew laws, collected from the Talmud, which he entitled "Yad Hachazakah," "The Strong Hand;" and in the "More Nevochim," which he completed in his fiftieth year. The publication of this work excited the most violent opposition from many of the Rabbins, who were alarmed by the preference which they saw given in the statements of Maimonides, to the Scripture and reason above the glosses of the Talm The Rabbins of France burnt his books, excommunicated those who read them, or

engaged in the study of foreign languages and science. The Rabbins of Spain defended Maimonides against the Rabbins of France. Excommunications and anathemas were employed by both parties, one against the other; and the consequences of the controversy were becoming perilous to the Jews, when the Rabbins of France submitted, and revoked their censures and decrees. Maimonides died at the age of seventy, and was buried in the land of Israel. A general mourning of three successive days testified the honour in which he was held.

the customs of another people. In the concise statement of their peculiarities which this Dissertation exhibits, there is a sufficient number of examples to support the affirmative of the question. They comprise, among others, the Unity and Moral Government of God, in respect to which the representations and incul cations of Moses are so important and sublime as to exclude the supposition that he derived his knowledge of them, or imported his laws relating to them, from Egypt, or any other country. An originality of character, it may confidently be affirmed, attaches to his Institetions in respect to these objects. Our means of estimating the religious knowledge of the most ancient times and countries are, indeed. not extensive; but the examination of all that profane ancient literature has preserved. justifies the conclusion, that there was no nation that had statutes and judgments comparable to those which the Hebrew Lawgiver taught and the Israelites received Other instances relate to

ties of time, place, offerings, &c. From this class, we select the following remarks.

In the portion of the "More Nevochim" before us, Maimonides has treated with great brevity on the reasons of the Mosaic laws. Occasionally we perceive in his comments, the influence of Talmudical prejudices; but the instances in which it appears, are so few as to excite our surprise that a writer so profoundly versed in rabbinical learning, should have proceeded with so much sobriety in his explanations. Sometimes these are more fanciful than just; but they supply, as a whole, very grati-purity of morals, and to worship, in its variefying evidence of their Author's deference to the genuine methods of determining the import of Scripture. Dr. Townley has rendered a service to English readers by enabling them to peruse this part of a work of so much celebrity as the More Nevochim," or "Teacher of the Perplexed," which has hitherto been accessible only to the learned, and the interest of which he has increased by the information embodied in his notes. The reader of this work, however, must not expect to receive from it very extensive or very profound knowledge of the subjects of the ancient Jewish legislation. They are considered chiefly in their religious connexions.

The Originality of the Institutions of Moses, is the subject of Dr. Townley's third Dissertation. He acknowledges his obligations for the observations which it contains, to a treatise on this subject printed in Northumberland, America, 1803, and to Dr. Wait's Course of Sermons, preached before the University of Cambridge, 1826. On this question, there is not to be obtained the evidence which is necessary to the determination of every particular included in the inquiry. The Mosaic laws themselves furnish proof that some of their regulations were founded on existing customs. Ancient usages were confirmed or modified in various instances by the Hebrew Legislator. It is reasonable to presume, that a lawgiver would not, in forming a national code, reject entirely the customs which he found established in the practice of a people. Many of the usages existing among the ancient Israelites, were doubtless of unquestionable excellence and utility; and it could not be necessary to discard or to change them: others were deeply rooted in the prejudices and habits of the nation, and these, we know, were continued, but with such checks and modifications as tended to their improvement. But the opposition of the Mosaic statutes, in the religious institutions and observances which they comprise, is too real and striking to admit of their being referred to the imitation or adoption of previously existing ordinances and customs. As a religious ritual, the Mosaic laws are sui generis, and contain the evidences of their being unborrowed from

"6. If the heathen had any Temples before the time of Moses, which is uncertain, and not probable, they were constructed in a very different manner from the tabernacle or the temple of Solomon. We no where read of such divisions as that (those) of the Hebrew temple; of such a symbol of the divine presence as the covering of the Ark between the Cherubim, in the Holy of Holies; there was no table of shew-bread, nor such a candlestick as was in the holy place. The fire and the lamps, also, evidently had their use, as appointed by Moses; but though sacred, there was nothing in them to divert the reverence of the worshipper from the invisible Jehovah. This could not be said of the perpetual fires, either of the Persians, or of the Vestals at Rome: these were debasing superstitions.

"Both the Hebrews and the heathen allowed the Privilege of Asylum to those who fled to their temples. But, with the heathens, this was carried to a length equally superstitious and dangerous to the community; because, whatever was the crime with which any person was charged, the criminal could not be ap prehended, and much less could he be punished, without incurring the vengeance of the deity who, it was supposed, protected him. (Potter's Antiquities, Vol. I. p. 201.) But no person, charged with any crime, was protected by flying to the altar of the Hebrews, except till the cause could be heard by regular judges; when, if he appeared to be guilty, he was ordered to be taken from the altar itself, and put to death. Even the City of Refuge could not protect him who was found, upon inquiry, to have killed his neighbour with design.

"8. Had Moses copied any thing from the heathen, he would probably have introduced something of their Mysteries, which were rites performed in secret, and generally in the light; to which peculiar privileges were annexed, and which it was deemed the greatest crime to reveal. The most remarkable of these Mysteries were the Eleusinian, which were celebrated at Athens every fourth year. Whatever these rites were, (and they were of a very suspicious

The Reasons of the Laws of Moses.

nature,) it was made death to reveal them; and if any person, not regularly initiated, was present at this exhibition, he was put to death without mercy. Vile as these mysteries must have been, according to the habits of the initiated, yet it was taken for granted, that those who had performed them, lived in a greater degree of happiness than other men, both before and after death.-Potter's Antiquities, Vol. I. 389.

p.

66

Nothing like this can be found in the Institutions of Moses. There was no secret in the Hebrew ritual. Every thing is described in the written law; and though none but the Priests could enter the holy place, and none the Holy of Holies, besides the High Priest, every thing that was done by them there, is as particularly described, as what was to be done by the people without." pp. 54, 55.

The Mosaic distinction of Animals (Dissert. 4.) has been treated of by Michaelis at considerable length, and with his usual acumen. "That in so early an age of the world," he ob

serves,

we should find a systematic division of quadrupeds, so excellent as never yet, after all the improvements in natural history, to have become obsolete, but, on the contrary, to be still considered as useful by the greatest masters of the science, cannot but be looked This, however, is upon as truly wonderful." one of the instances in which he thinks ancestorial usages were prescribed by Moses as express laws. Clean and unclean, he considers as equivalent to usual and unusual for food. That this distinction was admirably adapted to promote the design of the Lawgiver to keep the Israelites in a state of separation from other nations, is apparent. A cherished abhorrence of the food which others eat, is one of the strongest safeguards against the danger of contracting familiarity with them, which can be provided. Dietetical considerations, it is not less evident, were included in the reasons of this distinction; the health of the body, especially in some climates, being better provided for by the use of some kinds of food, than of other kinds. Moral relations may also be included in the distinction; though it must be confessed, that many of the explanations which have been given of particular enactments of this branch of the Mosaic statutes, are more fanciful than reasonable. Dr. Townley has assigned a distinct section to the last class of reasons, but without any enlargement of their number, as we find them in preceding authors, or any augmentation of their weight. The cloven hoof may be supposed to figure the distribution of rewards and punishments, with about as much propriety as appears in some other allegories which the Author has cited or referred to; but we cannot perceive in these examples, any proof of the moral purpose of the Legislator in ordaining the distinctions on which they are founded. The anti-idolatrous design of the distinctions, and their obvious tendency to preserve the people on whom they were enjoined, in a state of separation, were, in reality, a part of the moral relations which the Hebrew legislation comprehended.

The Reasons for the prohibition of eating Blood, are enumerated by Dr. Townley, in his fifth Dissertation, as Moral, Physical, and Ty

we agree with him in opinion, that the sup-
pical. On the permanency of the prohibition,
adduce a series of arguments, which, to say the
porters of the affirmative side of the question
least of them, are exceedingly plausible and de-
"The prevention of idol-
atrous practices," may be, perhaps, excluded
serving of attention.
from the reasons which we find assigned in the
But if, among the moral reasons
rary one.
chapter before us, as being a local and tempo-
why blood was to be poured out, and not to be
eaten, it appears that, by this means, the Israel-
ites might be deeply and constantly impress-
ed with the important truth, that God is the
sole Author and Disposer of Life; this reason
must be still valid, and the interdict as obliga-
tory on all mankind, and at all times, as it could
be binding on an Israelite. And if "the obli-
gation remains inviolate," as Dr. Townley
states, (p. 79,) the question cannot be, as he
elsewhere represents, (p. 86,) sub judice,-un-
determined.

al.

We notice this discrepancy, not for the purpose of raising the question relating to the prohibition of eating blood, into any undue importance, but that we may remark on the impropriety, of which an example is thus brought before us, of ascribing solemn conseforce of the representations on which it rests, quence to a position, and then impairing the by an admission of their dubiety. No contradiction can be more complete than that which these two statements exhibit. If an obligation remains inviolate, the practice to which it binds, cannot be of optional consideration. The prohibition of eating blood is more ancient than the date of the Mosaic legislation, and stands apart from the prescriptions of a religious rituIt is a precept of Divine authority (Gen. ix. 4.), given to mankind without any accomited; and when introduced into the Hebrew paniments by which its obligation may be limcode, it was not restricted to Israelites, but extended to all foreigners residing among them. (Lev. xvii. 10.) The Apostolic decision too (Acts xv. 20, 29,) must be regarded as of some The written Law, contained in the Pentamoment in the determination of this question. teuch, is distributed by Jewish Lawyers into 613 precepts; which they divide into two classhibitory of unlawful things; and the affirmative, es: the negative, comprising 365 precepts proincluding 248 precepts enjoining things to be done. These precepts, Maimonides has arranged into fourteen classes; of which the following summary forms the tenth chapter of the present volume.

"The first class includes those precepts Faith. To which are added, those which relate which contain the Fundamental Articles of to Repentance and Fasting. Of the utility of precepts of this nature, there can be no doubt.

"The second class comprehends the precepts respecting Idolatry; to which belong also, those relating to Garments made of different materials; to Vines of different kinds; and to the Fruits of trees produced during the first reason for this class of precepts is, that they three years after being planted. The general are designed to confirm and perpetuate the doctrines necessary to be believed.

"The third class relates to the Reformation of manners. For morality is necessary for the

due regulation of mankind, in order to promote the perfection of human society and conduct. "The fourth class embraces the various precepts respecting Alms, and Loans, and Debts; and those which are allied to them, as those which relate to Valuations of property; to Things anathematized; and to Judgments concerning loans and servants. The benefit of precepts of this nature, is experienced by almost every one; for a man may be rich to-day, and to-morrow he or his posterity be poor; and the man who is poor to-day may be rich to

morrow.

"The fifth class is composed of those precepts which prohibit injustice and rapine; the utility of which is evident.

"The sixth class is formed of the precepts respecting Pecuniary Mulcts; as, for instance, those adjudged for Theft, Robbery, and Falsewitness. The necessity and advantage of all the precepts of this nature are easily perceived; for if rogues and villains were suffered to go unpunished, there would be no end to the number of rascals of this description, nor to the depredations they would commit. Remission or suspension of punishment in these cases, is not, as some have foolishly imagined, Clemency and Mercy; but rather Cruelty, Inclemency, and Political Ruin. True Clemency is what God has commanded; Judges and Officers shalt thou make thee in all thy gates.' (Deut. xvi. 18.)

"The seventh class includes the precepts relating to Pecuniary Judgments, arising from the mutual transactions of trade and commerce; such as those of Lending, Hiring, Depositing, Buying, Selling, &c. The utility of precepts of this sort is very evident; for, as it is necessary that men should engage in mercantile concerns, and embark their property in them, so it is equally necessary that equitable rules should be established for the direction of trade, and for a just and proportionate valuation of property.

"The eighth class comprehends the precepts respecting Holy Days; as, the Sabbath, and various Festival Days. The causes and reasons of them are given in the Law itself, which, as we shall afterwards show, teaches us that they serve, either for the confirmation of some article of faith, or for the recreation of the body, or for both.

ary; and to teach them that reverence, and honour, and fear which are due to it.

66

The thirteenth class is composed of the precepts which relate to Prohibited Meats, and of other precepts of a similar nature Vors and the Law of the Nazarite belong also to this class, the general design of which is, to lay restraint upon the appetite, and to check the immoderate desire of dainties and delicacies.

"The fourteenth class is formed of the precepts relating to Unlawful Concubinage. Cir cumcision, and the Pairing of beasts of different species, are also included in this class. The objects of these Laws evidently is, to coerce libidinous desires, to prevent their immoderate gratification, and to guard men against the pursuit of them as their principal aim, which is too general a practice of foolish worldlings

"There is also another division of the precepts worthy of notice, viz.:-into those which regard God and Man; and those which relate to Man and Man. In the first (second) part will be included those precepts that are contained in the fifth, sixth, seventh, and part of the third classes; whilst the second (first) part will embrace the rest. For all the precepts, whether affirmative or negative, the design of which is to inculcate any article of faith, to urge any virtuous action, or to reform and amend the morals of men, are said to be betwixt God and Man; although, it may be well to remark, that even these do, ultimately and after many intervening circumstances, lead to those occurrences which take place between man and man.

Having thus indicated the different classes of the precepts, I shall now endeavour to explain the causes and reasons of them, so far as any of them may appear useless or obscure; except with regard to a few of them, whose design I have not hitherto been able to discover. p. 193-197.

The spirit of the Jewish Laws is invariably in favour of the beneficial use of property, and was intended to cherish the feelings and exercise of beneficence. Maimonides, in treating of the precepts respecting Estimations, Lev. xxvii., remarks, (p 223,) that "all of them have a tendency to lead men to liberality, and, instead of giving place to avarice, to contemn riches for the glory of God; the greater part of the evils and misfortunes which happen among men, arising from avarice, and ambition, or too great an eagerness to amass wealth." The same spirit pervades the laws of the Christian dispensation. Its provisions are all in nccordance with humane and generous babits; and its precepts direct all who assume the profession which connects their hopes with its "The tenth class contains the precepts re- blessings, to do good to all men as they have specting the Sanctuary, and its Ministers, Ves-opportunity. Covetousness, it denounces as sels, and Instruments. The utility of these precepts has already been noticed.

"The ninth class includes other parts of Divine Worship; as the recital of Prayer, the reading of the Shema, or, Hear, O Israel,' and various other acts of a similar nature, which all serve to confirm the doctrines of the Love of God, and what is to be attributed to Him, or to be believed concerning Him.

"The eleventh class embraces the precepts concerning Oblations. We have also previously shown the necessity and peculiar propriety of these ordinances at the period when they were first enjoined.

"The twelfth class comprehends those precepts which concern Pollutions and Purifications; the general design of which is to prevent persons from entering rashly into the Sanctu

idolatry, and declares, that no covetous man, who is an idolater, has any part in the kingdom of Christ. No vice is more the object of its reprobation, than avarice; no crime is more branded with ignominy, or threatened by severer denunciations of Divine displeasure.Selfishness of every kind is in direct opposition to its spirit; and no man can be more an alien from the temper which is in accordance with Christian principles, than he who gives place to avarice. In too many instances, however,